ManishChand:KNOW ABOUT HYPOTHESIS AND SAMPLING

Hypothesis

Literally, hypothesis is considered as a assumption about any occurrence or events. Formally, it may be understood as a set proposition set forth as an explanation for the specific phenomenon. It may be also said that it is short of predictive statement that needs to be proven and tested by scientific methods that associates an independent variable to some dependent variable. It may be proved or may not be depends upon the formulation of hypothesis and context.

Basic Characteristic of Hypothesis

It should be clear and precise.

It should be capable of being tested.

In case it is relational hypothesis, it should state relationship between variables.It should be limited, narrow in scope and must be specific.

It should be stated in simple term.

It should be consistent with most known facts.

It should be testable within a reasonable time frame.

It must explain what it claims to be explained.

It should have empirical reference.

SAMPLING

It is basically known as the section of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a conclusion about the aggregate or totality is made. It is also a process of collecting information about an entire population for examination of the phenomenon. Technically, selected items constitute sample and their selection process or technique is known sample design.

NEED for Sampling for a variety of reasons:

Sampling saves time and money.
Sampling may enable more accurate measurement for a sample study.
Sampling is used for infinite number of population or members.
It helps in obtaining information regarding characteristic of the population.
It also enables researcher to estimate the sampling errors.

REFERENCE

C.R. Kothari. 1991. Research Methodology; Methods & Techniques. Pub. Willey Eastern Limited.

ManishChand:INVESTIGATING THE QUALITY CONCERN, NEEDS AND CHALLENGES IN TEACHER EDUCATION UNDER SSA PROGRAMME

Teaching is considered as one of the ancient and most respectable professions in educational development. In the same way, teacher is the backbone of the society who shapes the next generation of future. In the present scenario, the role, functions and preparations of teachers have taken transition accordance with the needs of the society. As it is observed according to National Policy on Education ‘the status of teacher reflects the socio-culture ethos of the society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers.’ In this way, teachers need to be educated and facilitated in training programme according the changing demands and needs of the society.

There are two types of training programme are being given for who aspire to be associated with teaching profession. Pre-service teachers training programmme is for those who want to go towards teaching profession through formal schooling of B.Ed or B.Eld. Other, in-service teacher training programme is for who are already in teaching programme.

The role of educators always has been very important in improving the quality of teacher education in institutes. It is because the core agenda of training is curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation. These three are the basic feature of successful for any pre-service or in-service programme. It is seen that less than enough time and money are spent in improving teacher’s competencies and knowledge through refreshing programme, bridge course and capacity building in the name of teacher training programme. All school teachers receive training for twenty days in each year according to mandate and norms of SSA(Serve Shiksha Abhiyan,2001).There are many academic bodies like, NCTE, AICTE, SCERT, DIET etc. which facilitate and conduct training programme. But through district’s DIET, BRC and CRC do not have an adequate infrastructure and a number of professional educators for provide academic and training support. As National Knowledge Commission (2006) observes that ‘teachers are the single most important element of the school system and country is already facing a severe shortage of qualified and motivated school teachers at different levels.’

So, a small number of trainers have to cater to huge number of teachers in a training hall. It can be seen as increased class size, lesser infrastructure development, more pressure on space and time resulting in shift system. It does not let trainers to deliver information from tradition module of training and hold whole entire teachers through their conventional teaching method. It does not allow even open discussion among them because of excess numbers of teachers’ ratio and less number of educators. As a result, teachers find no interest and lead to absenteeism in training programme. When this happens, the quality of teaching and teacher’s learning suffer a lot and make no sense in this regard. The type of training and preparation teacher needed for actual adjustment or management are not provided to trainees

On the contrary, lesser amenities due to crunch in resources lead workload among teacher educators. Present education system is only trying to fulfill the goal of universalization of education by 2010 which is still away from reality. It is merely trying to satisfy the demands of our constitution. But still, a lot of problems are emerging regarding teacher education. Are we really able to meet with demand of teachers’ need and classroom concern? How our teachers could be made more independent, motivated and critical thinking oriented regarding teaching profession? How teaching practice could be made more effective, interactive, vibrant situation and meaningful with use of e-resource material in teacher education? How to bridge the gap between teacher education curriculum and school curriculum? How performance of teachers educators’ appraisal could be a mile stone in providing training more fruitful and worthwhile? These are the some questions that have been thought of writing this research proposal considering present scenario of teacher education.

This study will be conducted in Varanasi district which is situated in eastern part of Uttar Pradesh with a population of 4.9 million. Varanasi has a significant presence of 18 per cent of Scheduled Castes but no Scheduled Tribes. The traditional elite of the city have been traders and landowners of local Vaishya castes. Despite the position of the Hindu dominated culture, Muslim has population 30 per cent in Varanasi city. The commercial life is based on the manufacturing of silk, sari usually Muslim weavers and Hindu traders. The literacy rate of Varanasi district is 51.8(Male 66.66 whereas Female35.00) per cent, lower than the national average of 52.2 percent, but higher than the average of the whole of Uttar Pradesh.(Census 1991). In this regard, this study intends to trace out the concern of teacher education in imparting quality education, and manking training programme relevant with respect to new pedagogy, building teachers’ confidence, capacity and providing updated information. This study will also seek to find out and try to bring challenges that occur during training programme.

With respect to teachers education, quality denotes to the features of education which satisfy the needs of teachers, students, parents and society at large by developing appropriate knowledge and skills. Quality in teacher education means to the availability of competent teachers, an ideal teacher and educators proportion, adequate infrastructure facilities etc. As rightly stated by Anil Kumar (2005:36),“quality is not a simple term. If we have to address seriously the question of quality of teacher education, quality of its various components such as content of the study material, academic approach of system, delivery of programme, examination etc. are to be addressed and that too in an integrated manner.”

Curriculum is considered the key factor of education system. But our present curriculum of teacher education does not meet the teachers to translate the school curricula in a meaningful way according to socio-cultural and technical realities of the society in which students live. Teacher education programme and curricula content evaluation should be continuous process. It should address the changing concept of teacher education. Anil Kumar (2005:37) observes that” if we consider teaching is a profession; admission should be based on certain standards and norms particularly in the environment where teacher is to act as a facilitator of learning not just the communicator of learning. It is well established fact, research that a successful teacher, there should be some kind of aptitude for teaching and learning. There should be test of teaching and learning aptitude. It should be fulfilled in in-service teacher education programme. And also language ability, subject content find place.”

The quality of teacher education rests upon competent professional educators having field experience. For quality of teacher education, educators’ preparation is very necessary. The present teacher education has many drawbacks like traditional curricula, lack of innovative practice and pedagogy and crunch of expertise resource person and adequate resources. As Education Commission (1964-66) emphatically said there is dire need to prepare professionally qualified school teachers for imparting quality education associating the important alignment between universities and schools. The essence of a progarmmes of teacher education is quality. Lack and its absence, teacher education becomes not only a financial waste but a source of overall deterioration in educational standards. But the quality of training institutes remains with a few expectations, either mediocre or poor, competent staff are not attracted, vitality and realism are lacking in the curriculum and programme of work which continue to be largely traditional set patterns and rigid techniques are followed in practice teaching with disregard for the present day needs and objectives.

Teachers’ training is necessary because many teachers lack the confidence and teaching skills in schools. Training helps teachers to acquire new skills and knowledge to understand students’ needs. The need to prepare professionally qualified school teachers has been recognized to be crucial for the qualitative improvement of Indian education since 1960. The Report on National Commission on Teachers' Education (1983-85) realized this and recognized the absence of clear cut policies and priorities for in-service teacher education. The committee noted that there had been no systematic identification of in-service needs of teachers and the strategies for the training are vague and half hearted. Not much emphasis was placed on solving practical problems of the teachers or meeting their educational needs. Therefore, an urgent need was recognized by Report of National Commission for a thorough overhaul of existing practices. It was said that the qualitative improvement for in-service education must be given major preference.

Programme of Action (1992) came out with some concern with respect to teacher education which is serving as a general framework for educational management in the country. It outlined a clear policy in reforming teacher training and developing in-service teachers. It aims at improving the people’s faith in the teaching profession, developing teachers’ conscience, raising the standard of both academic and professional abilities of the teachers and improving the status of the teaching profession. This can be carried out by changing the training procedure, continuously developing in-service teachers and educational personnel. Teachers are supposed to look after the total development of children and their performance is the most crucial input in the field of the education. Thus, their training should be adequate to stimulate the socio-cultural and moral development of the child.

A policy perspective 1985 also admits the fact that teacher performance is most crucial input in the field of education. Whatever policies that are laid down have to be interpreted by teachers but unfortunately the process of updating curricula of teacher education is slow therefore we face a paradox of having information technology, research but progressively more indifferent teachers.

According to Yashpall Committee Report (1993), ‘Learning Without Burden’has also identified some problems in teacher education and recommended 'the emphasis in these programme should be on enabling trainees to acquire the ability for self-learning and independent thinking.'

Teachers who are in teaching profession must have desirable attitude and aptitude. According to Sr. Maria Mytle, A.C.(2005) says that the quality of teachers mostly depends upon on the quality of the formal training they receive before going the profession. The quality of teacher education rests on the competence of teacher educators who are responsible for producing teachers with requisite professional skills. Teacher educators have the responsibility of generating knowledge base both from theoretical understanding and field experience. The present age of information explosion necessitates teacher educators to be multifaceted personalities. They should not only generate knowledge base from theoretical understanding and field experience, but also identify relevant knowledge transaction strategies.

How to bridge the gap between teaching style of educators and learning style teachers? Vikas Modi (2005) describes that ‘in 1998, NCERT brought out Curriculum Framework for Quality Teacher Education which provide guidelines for the organization of curriculum for different stages of teacher education. The curriculum reflects the realities of the national life; strive to realize the inter-disciplinary goal of education. It attempts to establish a viable integration of theory and practice of education and provide varied educational experiences needed by a teacher in his workplace.’ Thus it aims to prepare professional competent teachers to perform their roles effectively as per the needs of the society and to meet these aims, one important factor is teaching method.

There is study which reflects some thought pertaining to failure of teacher institutions in contributing teacher education. Jitender Sharma(2005) observes that the failure of the teacher education institutions to contribute significantly to the profession of education in India. These institutions specially the Faculty of Education in India have ignored and avoided the public schools. The research that the Faculties of Education has produced has been superficial and mostly irrelevant to the practice of teaching in our schools. Now we must redefine our mission and commit ourselves to contribute to the development of teaching profession in India and the preparation of quality educational professional for India.

It is often seen that training programme are becoming formality. The present training is not meeting and addressing teacher’s field problems. Then how teacher training programme should be conducted? It has been rightly mentioned by Lee.S Shulman (2004) in his essay on ‘Teaching Learning Learning to Teach’ that the goal of teacher education is not to indoctrinate or train teachers to behave in prescribed ways, but to educate teachers to give sound reason for their teaching as well as to perform skillfully. By soundly he means that it requires both a process of thinking about what they are doing and an adequate base of facts, principles, and experiences from which to reason.

Ms.Delna Dorine Defna Lobo(2005) has pointed out that to provide quality teacher education, the teacher educators must maintain a high academic and professional competence. Unless the teacher educators are in a position to provide worthwhile experience to our pupil teachers for realizing the stipulated teacher education objectives related to a particular type of

education, the talk of any worthwhile quality teacher would be futile.

NCF(2005) has also come out with suggestive measures to enhance teacher education. It says that teachers as facilitators need to be well-versed with the following

i. to enable the teachers to draw cultural experiences.

ii. to enable the teachers to link the schooling with society.

iii. to enable to connect knowledge to life outside the school.

iv. to ensure that learning is shifted away from rote method.

v. to enrich the curriculum for the overall development of children rather than remaining textbook-centric.

vi. to make examination more flexible and integrated with classroom life.

Shamsha Emanuel,S.Gaythri and Hitarth Panchal (2005) has identified pitfalls in teacher education curriculum. There is a wide gap between the ‘phraseology’ and the ‘implementation’. We have significantly recoined the term as teacher education, but still the practice reflects more of teacher training. There is more emphasis on the acquisition of skills than towards attitude formation. Te role of the teacher is supposed to be that of a facilitators, but we train them more to become instructors and information providers. Instead of holistic evaluation, more emphasis on cognitive evaluation is given neglecting the affective and psychomotor aspects.

Poonam Batra‘s Voice and Agency of Teacher’ (2005: 4352) has found some gaps in the vision of teacher education envisaged by the NCF 2005. ‘First viewing the teacher as one who needs to be persuaded and trained ….oriented to be empowered to evolve pedagogy that fosters critical thinking within a consciously created democratic environment of learning for all children irrespective of class, religion, region, community and gender’. Second, ‘it is assumed that teachers (typically constructed as homogenous category) exist in isolation of socio-political context that actively discriminates between people and children from different background and that they can be ‘oriented’ successfully to ‘implement’ the articulated new perspective of NCF.

Bansal(2005:185-187) has observed some gaps between teacher education curriculum and school education curriculum. He considers following points lacking in teacher education curriculum

i. lack of knowledge of school subjects

ii. Pedagogical weakness.

iii. Lack of co-ordination between technocratic culture and cultural heritage.

iv. lack of research on problems of schools and education.

v. scarcity of resources in schools and training institutions.

Again, Secondary Education Commission (1953) has observed that a major factor responsible for the education reconstruction at secondary stage is teachers’ professional training. It has felt isolation between teacher training and school education. It has suggested and recommended for the orientation, modernization and recharging of teacher education institutions preparing teacher for all levels.

These days, training programmes are not very much effective and useful in context of teachers because it has many pitfalls such as lack of teachers’ experience, needs and class room practice. The recent study shows that “The education system rarely asks teachers what kind of training would be useful to them. Despite the huge emphasis on in-service training in recent years under the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), it comes as no surprise to find that teachers for the most part view these courses as formalities to be completed, rather than resources to help them do their job better. Those responsible for designing training (and also imparting it in many cases) typically have advanced degrees and administrative seniority, rather than hands on experience with primary school teaching. Training is thus rarely based on teachers’ everyday practice, experiences, problems or needs.

Nor is it linked to student learning. Despite the fact that the resource centers were established at the block and cluster levels to provide academic support to teachers, in practice these personnel fulfill routine administrative functions. The primary schoolteacher has no source of academic support whatsoever. Given that training programmes provide little help in this regard, the teacher is left to muddle through as best as she can. Supervisory staffs have neither the training nor the experience to provide academic supervision or support to teachers.”(Vimala Ramachandran, Suman Bhattacharjea,EPW August 1, 2009)

Krishna Kumar.(2005:82) identifies that present curricula has many pitfalls. He argues that the aims of curriculum of the teacher training focused on the methods of instruction and the maintenance of order in the classroom. Lesson planning was presented as the core task of learning how to teach well. It means that teacher training programme gives the emphasis on how to plan a lesson rather helping the trainees to understand the social scenario of the children that they are going to teach.

Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves (1992) identify four basic elements that provide a framework for understanding teacher professional development: the teacher’s “purpose”; the teacher “as a person”; the “real world context” in which teachers work; and the “culture of teaching”, that is teachers’ professional relationships with others within the system.

There is one study which talks about quality curriculum and suggests various measures for improving teacher education curriculum. According to Sr. Maria Myrtle, A.C.,2005:61-66) “Quality assurance in education implies ensuring the maintenance of set standards from planning stage till the feedback stage of any programme. Assuring quality is imperative from the stage of designing a need-based curriculum, developing appropriate curriculum transaction strategies, designing alternatives whenever necessary effective execution of teaching, learning and assessment activities, ensuring remedies steps, continual monitoring of the programmes, personnel and institution.”

Mani.(2005) has explored some innovative learning for teacher education and school education . He suggests the idea of cooperative learning needs to be emphasized in schools and teacher educators need to promote the idea in training. Proving support materials such as activities books, laboratory manuals, preparing facilitative schedule and tasks for accomplishment through self-learning could be made possible. There is a need to orient the teachers and teacher educators for the new syllabus, facilitative methodology of teaching and focus on the self-learning of students and teachers. For example, in order to do science; teachers need to

i. provide alternatives in addition to the lecture.

ii.provide exercises that can help in understanding.

iii.give addresses of websites(freeware) that students can easily surf.

iv.give opportunities for students to develop projects such as preparing biodiesel.

There is complete absence of teachers’ autonomy and being as teacher. There is lack of autonomy in taking part in policy/programme/curriculum development implementation, lead teachers to become as passive recipient in training programme. So, it needs to be addressed teachers’ involvement in programme/policy and also in its formulation. According to a review of teacher development practices in five countries concludes that” When teachers are actively involved and empowered in the reform of their own schools, curriculum, pedagogy, and classrooms, even those with minimal formal education and training are capable of dramatically changing their teaching behavior, the classroom environment, and improving student achievement. Conversely, when teachers are ignored, or when reforms come from above or are not connected to the daily realities of the classroom and local environment, even the most expensive and well designed interventions are almost certain to fail” (Craig et al 1998).

Another research paper deals with, to what extent do educational policies include a comprehensive and integrated response to the diverse set of factors known to affect teacher development in effective teaching practice? This study reflects that “The policy environment in which teachers work sends a countless of often conflicting signals about how schools are expected to do business and about what behaviors and skills are valued and rewarded. Messages about more-or-less preferred teaching practices and learner outcomes issue from all of the major education policy domains, including those that shape curriculum, assessment, teacher and administrator licensing and evaluation, and accountability. Existing policies and practices must be assessed in terms of their compatibility with two cornerstones of the reform agenda: a learner-centered view of teaching

and a career long conception of teachers’ learning” (Darling Hammond and McLaughlin 1995).

Performance appraisal of teachers and teacher educators has been always overlooked in India. This can be perceived in teachers' attitude and teaching approach towards their duty and responsibilities. There is a research study which shows that teachers’ performance appraisal can improve training practice in teacher education. According to Rina Chaudhary and Milind Shashrabuddhe(2005:24) that “performance appraisal in teacher education is necessary because the basic characteristic of this profession demands continuous professional up gradation or enrichment on the part of teacher in higher education or teacher education. Teacher educators are in charge of school teachers. If one recalls what Education Commission (1964-66) expressed “the destiny of India is being shaped in her classroom” one can easily understand the vital role which teacher education need to play. Therefore, their performance assumes great significance in terms of all the three major functions they need to perform.”

Finally, from above literature review pertaining to teacher education, seems that alone teacher training programme cannot achieve the goal unless the education is delivered in a manner, which will take into account the socio-political and economic reality, and perceptions of teachers to whom it is addressed. Training programme must understand teachers’ needs, experience and classroom situation. This may be considered relevant in school education and also applicable for teacher education, as Poonam Batra says, ‘if we want really government school children, to develop the ability to listen, speak and write a ‘multi perspectival discourse, their teachers will need ‘to redefine their role from servants of a hegemonic power to public transformative.(Contemporary Education Dialogue, 2006.Vol.4:1, pp.96).. Therefore, to reach out optimal aim of teacher education, there is inevitable need to be given proper attention towards developing ‘new pedagogy approach, facilitative methodology redefine training curricula, preparation of teacher educators, performance appraisal for both teachers and teacher educators, training teacher oriented, building teachers’ confidence, capacity and providing updated information through effective training programme so that they could deliver quality education for educational and national development.

REFERENCES
1- Shulman, Lee (2004) Autonomy and Obligation: The Remote Control of Teaching, The Wisdom of Practice, Jossy Bass, chpt. 4 pp.133-161.
2.The Teacher and Society : Report of the National Commission On Teachers (1983-85)
3. Kothari Commission report: Education and National Objectives.
4. Poonam Batra,(2005) Voice and Agency of teachers: Missing Link in National Curriculum Frame work 2005,Economics EPW. Oct 1-7,pp.4347-4356.
5. Krishan Kumar (2005) Meek Dictator: The Pradox of Teacher’ Personality,Chapt. IV in Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Colonialist and Nationalist Ideas,Sage.,2nd Edt.1991/2005,pp.73-94.
6. Krishna Kumar (2002) Planned Lesson and other Problems of the Teacher Training in Reflections on Lesson Planning,IASE,Department of education University of Delhi,pp.5-13.
7.Craig, Helen, Richard J Kraft and Joy du Plessis (1998): Teacher Development: Making an Impact (Washington DC: USAID and The World Bank).

8.Fullan, Michael and Andy Hargreaves (1992): Teacher Development and Educational Change (London: Routledge).

9.Lewin, K M and J S Stuart (2003): “Researching Teacher Education: New Perspectives on, Practice, Performance and Policy”, Synthesis Report, Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Project (MUSTER), DFID Education Papers.

10.Darling-Hammond, Linda and Milbrey W McLaughlin (1995):“Policies That Support, Professional Development in an Era of Reform”, Phi Delta Kappan, April.

11.Vimala Ramachandran, Suman Bhattacharjea. Attend to Primary School,Economic & Political Weekly August 1, 2009 VOL, XLIV NO 31.

12. NCERT 2005 National curriculum framework 2005,New Delhi: NCERT.

13.Mani, R.S. 2005 Quality Concern in Teacher Education,;Quality concern in teacher education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.28-35

14. 1992. Report of the National Policy on Education (1986) with modifications undertaken in 1992,New Delhi: Department of Education,MHRD.

15. A.Kumar, 2005.Enhancing Quality of Teacher Education: Need for an Integrated Approach. Quality Concern in Teacher Education CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.. pp.36-42

16. Sr. Maria Myrtle,A.C.,2005. Innovation in Teacher Education-A Value Based Approach. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.61-66

17. Vikas Modi,2005. Innovation in Teacher Education for Meeting the Challenges. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.83-84

18. Ms. Delna Dorina Defna Lobo.2005. ICT and Skill Based Quality Education in The Scenario of Teacher Education. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.

19. Shamsha Emanuel,S. Gaythri and Hitarth Panchal.2005.Teacher Education Curriculum in Alignment with School Curriculum-An Introspection. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.140-146.

20. National Policy on Education (1986), Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India.

21. N.K. Bansal 2005. Bridging the Gaps between School Curriculum and Teacher Education Curriculum. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.185-187

22. Jitendra Sharma.2005. Bridging the Gaps between School Curriculum and Teacher Education Curriculum. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.188-191

23. NCERT(2000) National Curriculum Framework for School Education: A Framework,New Delhi: NCERT.

24. Rina Chaudhary & Milind Shashrabuddhe.2005. Performance Appraisal in Teacher Education: Some Issues. Bridging the Gaps between School Curriculum and Teacher Education Curriculum. Quality Concern in Teacher Education, CASE, Faculty of Education & Psychology,The M.S. University of Baroda.pp.222-228

ManishChand:EMERGING ROLE OF E-RESOURCE MATERIAL IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

E-resource material is the best tool for making teaching effective and dissemination of knowledge in the classroom. It provides a creative scope for interaction and teaching-learning in a classroom. E-resource material encompasses audio, video, animation, illustration, power point presentation tape recorder, radio, projector method etc. It enriches student’s knowledge and learning experience. It is seen that when any aspect of multimedia is used in classroom, theater or public places, it produces effect upon people in straightforward manner towards reaching the set objectives.

Besides stimulation and enchantment, it provides students a frame of understanding towards the concepts and makes it clear through visualization of object. It gives students a lot of opportunities to associate between abstract and practical things. With the use of multimedia, classrooms become lively and center of appeal. It draws attention of students towards the lesson plan prepared by teachers. Multimedia can be used in crucial way in the form self-pacing, self-checking and interrogatory interaction amongst students. At the elementary school, the introduction of video, tape recording equipment which does not require elaborates production or facilitates. Use of television can be shown for the self-assessment of children. Tape recorders can be replayed for the purpose of self-analysis by the group of children or peers analysis with their classmates. Therefore, “small group is an integral part of the Problem Based learning approach, used consciously and conscientiously to achieve the learning outcomes”. 1

Multimedia saves time and labor of teachers, without spending time on monotonous lecture. It also assists in teachers’ teaching method and becomes a form of pedagogical tool. It provides students realistic form of situation which helps setting an understanding of book culture and life culture. The realistic form of situation provides students live picture whereby they can relate themselves and explore the possibilities of meaning.

Multimedia can perform a vital role in bridging the gap between rural and urban diversity. It may be understood in this way for example, Small Science Class 4, 'Where Our Food Comes From' students who study in urban setting schools, are away from technicality of irrigation and method of farming. Many of students may not be acquainted with how crops (rice) are grown. What are processes involves in producing rice? Apart from bookish culture, through video presentation it can be made more understandable and lively for initiating class discussion among students.

A form of video presentation can hold the interest of students and promote exciting learning experience while sitting in the classroom. Students can have better understanding through interesting and appealing visual presentation. Students can make a sense about what process, time and labor involves in rice production; “ploughing, applying manure, levelling, sowing by broadcasting sprouting seeds onto wet nursery plot, seed close-up, sprouting rice seed, seedlings grow, removing seedlings from nursery plot, transplanting seedlings into flooded fields, applying pesticides, weeding, flowering, close-up, drying out in drained field, harvesting, threshing and goes into milling and polishing machine”2

After that students can see “what happens during milling and polishing: after threshing the rice grain is separated from the stalk, milling removes husk, remains rice, polishing removes outer skin and embryo, finally in turns into polished rice, outer skin comes out along with embryo”(abid.).

This is another important objective of using audio visual material, using the application of slides and films in the classroom. Here teachers can use the audio visual aids to reinforce their teaching in the context of a lecture or activities based lesson. Thereafter, teachers can demonstrate any motivational movie according the needs of situation and relevant topic. In the classroom, films, audio tapes and video tapes can be used instead of personal student teacher contacts. These forms of instruction can be used in continuing government schools where the teachers are inadequate.

It is pertinent to not that purposefully designed and small group learning facilitates through the development of audio-visual material that supports and promotes both cognitive and meta-cognitive development. Teachers may show some movie, cartoon and slow-motion animation on a story of water cycle (condensation, evaporation, and perspiration), a story of pollen grains (aspects of pollen dispersal), and presentation on wild vegetables for the use of teaching. Having finished, teacher can instruct children to sit in small group and tell what they saw. The ‘structures’ in small group can be applied as problem based learning, along with the tutorial process and the use of scenarios, help the students to learn how to learn in groups and learn how to anticipate, prevent, cope and deal with the difficulties that they will experience working in this way.

Multimedia will serve effective method in dissemination of knowledge even in overcrowded classroom. Without this technical device, poorly teacher prepared cannot hold the class properly. If teachers use the help of audio visual in class such as projector, which would definitely stimulate imagination and catch the attention of students for construction of knowledge. Teachers often give instruction heavily loaded abstract, verbalisms which seem meaningless sometime. So in case of elementary level, teaching should be in simple and lucid manner. In this way, use of audio visual aid in classroom, would lead towards learning with understanding, Learning by watching would generate interest among students for prolong study, not as a burden. Teachers should know which things are relevant and which are irrelevant, specially how audio visual aid may contribute to an understanding of the lesson being taught. Therefore, it is essential for any teachers who want effecting teaching, must plan carefully and worked out in advance.

Audio visual would be also more useful and meaningful for those students belonging to literature background. All the genre of literature (novel, drama, tragedy, comedy etc.) can be shown easily through this device. Students will learn to understand it very soon before reading. Reading may seem little tiresome and time-taking. But in case of audio visual would maintain and hold the interest of students. The impact of multimedia would be hundred times more than book. Teachers may demonstrate in many types of slide and movie in the classroom. Apart from that “an understanding of the arts-painting, sculpture, the dance, handcrafts-can readily be taught by means of television. And both radio and television are valuable media for teaching musical forms”.3 It will enrich their understanding and vocabulary about the uses of language during conversation. Through recording, radio and tape, teacher can tell telecast many interesting and informative daily news, history and story. These would build a creative environment in primary and upper primary class room.

Learning of children can be influences effectively by the audio-visual aid. Teachers can use television or projector method to explain the scientific phenomenon. It will take less time in describing the minute details of the things comparatively traditional method. Through television children can watch the big image of the object such as solar eclipse, use of water cycle, stories, drama, and vermi-composting in primary science text book etc.

There are some limitations while using e-resource material in the classrooms. Regarding facilities, equipment and capabilities required for extend use of audio-visual materials in schools will differ depending upon a wide variety of factors like space, funding and electricity. The biggest factor is to note that it is not problem of hardware or software but the educational objectives of the teachers and the motivational issues of the children.

Due to use of audio visual aid in the classroom, many teachers feel hesitant, fear making of errors. When they use such technology, they do not feel comfortable. Using of audio visual aids decreases teacher’s autonomy in the classroom. They find themselves as motor which is run by remote control. It also creates frustration and panic fear of committing more mistakes. They do not find natural environment where they deliver their knowledge. This technical device leads disappointed performance. “Electronic equipment may frighten teachers with its apparent complexity. At least part of this fear comes from the expectation that something may go wrong during the lesson causing the instructor the embarrassment of appearing inept, unable to control the teaching situation’’4

Audio-visual aid may be more necessary to typically remote area in order to assist in gaining optimum learning. It is somewhat hard to achieve such learning if there is only one center it is because of schools locations, educational objectives differ from place to place.

When audio- visual material are compulsory for the teaching –learning process, then it is obvious that the teacher could be replaced for these schools by a well-trained projection , functioning equipment and well-prepared self-explanatic material, such as audio visual software materials. When such areas of curricula can be identified in advance, it is clear that a great saving of time and talent of the teacher can be utilized in another creation of innovative work.

Audio visual materials have always been used for instruction in hope of reducing the heavy teaching loads that have been increasing stress for children. It is seen that audio visual materials has been teacher oriented mechanism which is not fair. In such atmosphere, teacher either projects the visuals or plays the audio from a central position at his/her desk. After that, students are supposed to look or listen to the programme presented. It should not be like that rather teacher must encourage among students for healthy and fruitful discussion in the classroom after movie finishes. For growth of learning, interaction is dire of between students and teachers.

Another aspect, socio-cultural context of learner is an important factor which impinges upon overall personality. It is very necessary for the use of electronic devices such as, tape recorder, television, computer, and radio, children‘s family must be educated and sensitive towards implication of these operation. After that, it is possible to make best use of these electronic devices in purposeful and meaningful way. Otherwise, it may bring complex repercussion upon children. Children belonging to WSS (weaker section of society) may not be able to facilitate these things at home and send their children in decent school where these modern technologies are equipped.

Finally, in this way, we understood that E-resource material is becoming the best tool for making teaching effective and the best dissemination of knowledge. It can be said that E-resource material are emerging as pedagogical tool in relieving teachers time and labor, making classroom lively and more interactive oriented and providing scope for different aspects of learning style. However, it can not be overlooked that it has also some certain limitation that all schools whether urban or rural cannot afford and difficult to adopt approach to modern technological devices, multimedia because still many schools have less adequate teachers, poor management, funding and modern infrastructure of classroom facilities.

REFERENCES

1. Benson, G., Noesgard, C. and Drummond-Young, M. (2001) Facilitating small group learning. In Rideout, E. (ed.) Transforming Nursing Education through Problem-Based Learning. Sudbury: Mass, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 75–102.

2. J.Ramadas. Small Science Textbook Class 4, Developed by Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education. published, (2001) Oxford University Press.(p.75-78).

3. Thomas, M, Kobayashi, (1987), Educational Technology-Its Creation, Development and Cross-Cultural Transfer, (Chapter 4, “Educational Radio and Television-Their development in advanced countries” Pegamon Press. p.116.

4. Thomas, M, Kobayashi, (1987), Educational Technology-Its Creation, Development and Cross-Cultural Transfer, (Chapter 4, “Educational Radio and Television-Their development in advanced countries” Pegamon Press. p.118.

5. Mc Known C. H 7 Roberts B. A (1949). Audio-Visual Aids to Instruction, Mc Graw Hill Book Co. p.6.

ManishChand:ROLE OF EDUCATION

Education is a tool to enable and empower people towards self­-discovery and making life better. There are two type of education. First is formal education, where schools, colleges and university impart information and knowledge. Second, it is informal education, where family, society, theater and   club  are  the major medium whereby people learn and develop their understanding. Hence, education is not a static process rather it is dynamic process whereby people learn from both family as well as schools through interaction and exchange of words. I remember Nelson Mandela words true in this sense,”Education is a powerful weapon which can be used to change the world.”

It also means modify the behaviour of the person. Schools are the place where children go and their behaviour   get   changed   under   holistic   environment.   Education   is   also   deliberate   action   which involves time and training by institutions. That is why Education commission (1964­66) emphasized that education can not be considered in isolation. It is to be planned in social settings. It must contribute to national development.

Education   is   also   considered   as   one   of   the   most   important   agents   of   social   change.   This transformation in individual and national progress can be realized through formal quality education. In this regard national education Commission (1964­66) has observed ,”The destiny of India is being   shaped   in   her   classrooms.”   And   in   adition,   NPE   (1992)   also   has   observed,”education   is fundamental to all round development,material and spiritual.”

So, in this way, i personally believe and conceive   education is as tool to enable and empower people. It develops people's level of understanding  around the issues. However, it depends and varies how   education   is   imparted   for   children.Teachers'   professional   knowledge,students   ratio,school environment, and pedagogy play crucial role in delivering quality education. In this regard NCF (2000) observed ,” Pedagogy should aim in catering to individual differences enabling each child to blossom in fulfillment.”

ManishChand:Underestimating Student’s Potentiality

                      
Each individual is unique in itself. Each person is possessed with different sort of ability and disposition. Fortunate are those who realize in time with support of their decent family environment and guidance. But what about those people who later came to realize their capacity and lag behind. They find themselves difficult in coping along with privileged children but dare to head with them.

It is short narrative tale related a friend of mine who became the victim of this comparative measures of success. Once he told me that he felt very embarrassing and shameful situation when his teacher told in front of him that his other classmate is ‘bright and understand better’. My friend said that he could not sleep well for many days because of this sarcastic remark. He said that what is his fault? If he could not understand better! Who is wrong? It is student who is average or so called ‘slow learner’. Whether teacher who did not have skill to convince his or her student?

As long as, the crux of matter is concerned is very serious and subtle. It is really debatable issue. It is difficult for a naïve person to arrive at certain conclusion. But when I think back in past I find that we always appreciated and still sincerely respect out teachers who made us to have our own polimorphous understanding and enlightened our mental horizon with restless endeavor. And that teacher also took pain in convincing with utmost patience until we understood something.

But here we find different story that, people in academic after reaching even higher position ,do not have common sense to guess the negative impact of comparison of ability before students. Teachers need to introspect upon themselves that it evident proof that having taken a lot of theoretical knowledge, one is not able to convey what he/she wants to say to them. It is teachers’ epistemological belief in these pretexts that poor children understand poorly even one try his/her best. Teacher is already prejudiced about concept of learning and understanding. Such teachers is supposed to make up their own mind and come down while making judgment about students whether they are fast learner or slow at least in front of them.

ManishChand:GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION, PROCESS AND OUTCOMES FOR GIRL EDUCATION

In this paper, I will critically  discuss on gender issues in education from micro to macro perspectives. I will also put teachers view on the same issues who responded during the interview session. During the interview with government teacher, I felt his view was very much reserved and close to tradition and societal norms. On the other hand, elite teacher opinion was much modern thinking towards gender issues.  Finally I got a sense that both of them seemed to be accepting that “we are not part of system, we are just teacher, we do not have sufficient autonomy and freedom to take decision and to go beyond the traditional hegemony.”
The Issue of Retention

“The enrollment of girls has increased, but the dropout rate of girls from marginalized and  specially from the upper primary level upwards is extremely high”(NCF,2005,pp.1). BMC  teacher was quite aware about the fact that girls at this very age drop out because of puberty and adolescent. He also said that during11 to 14 age girls grown up. So being elder of the family among the brothers and sisters, she is supposed to take care at home. On the other hand , private school teacher said that this kind of incident rarely happens in her school. She said that issues of drop out happens more in govt. school because because parents do not bother and have much concerns about girls education. She was of view that  almost children who study in private good school like us irrespective of gender and caste, religion, ,belong to decent family. Therefore this type of situation hardly happens.

Educationa as a Means of Socialisation and Social Control
“Formal education or schooling involves moving into public spaces, interaction with males(in co-educational school and with men teachers)” ”(NFG,2005.pp.2)It is interesting to note that govt teacher was very much open and clever to say that schools are not as social control and socialization. But school is a place where children receive moral education how to live their life and all. We provide good education. He was of opine that without education, children can not develop in their life. If school is considered as social control, it is not bad.  School is a place where we children get socialized and civilized ,how to treat with others and respect for elders. Without schooling, children will be like wild animal. Socialization of children is necessary because, without rule and norms children could go wrong path way. So , to bring them on the  right track, socialization is very necessary.

Whereas, private teacher was bit liberal in this case. She said that we do not punish them time and again. We make children realize that they committed mistake. Although, she believes that children need to be molded in decent behavior. We expect from every children to talks politely and respect others. Children learns courtesy words from schools and their classmates. We do not restrict them in a boundary. They can make friendship with girls . No problem. But they should respect the dignity of school and teachers, while going beyond certain limitation. In our school, girls and boys can seat anywhere, they want.

Implication  for girls as students

“Socialization and education reinforce each other. Schooling becomes another form of domestication. For example, school textbooks depicts this gender based domestic division of labor.” (NFG,2005.pp.4). It is often seen in many schools that girls are treated same manners as they get treated at home. In schools, The girls seems to do all the mundane chores, like serving  water or , fetching water and making tea for the teachers or visitor, family. So it is a question that what is the difference between school and home if both are doing indoctrination in the same manner ?

Govt teacher believes that bring water is not big deal. It is petty  and easy task so they are supposed to do. Boys are supposed to do harder work because they can do it quickly. Girls can not go everywhere, as compare to boy. If suppose they go outside  ans something might happen. Who would be responsible for that? So it is our moral duty to take care of girls when they inter school. We want children betterment, read write and grow.

On the contrary, private teacher said that in our school, we do not have such kind division of labour in our school. We treat and assign them equal task and expect to do the same. We want that both should get equal opportunity and to do their best. As teacher we are only facilitator.

Heterogeneous Gendered Realities and Domain and Challenges in Education.
In case, the dimensions of rurality, class, caste and tribe, religion and disabilities are further complicated by contemporary political and socio-economic forces to create cumulative disadvantages.” (NFG,2005.pp.5)
It is pertinent to note that govt teacher says that it is fact that rurality is considered a sign for backwardness. In rural areas they are paucity of schools. Schools are located quite far away. In case of girls, it become more problematic to go to school. Parents do not allow girls to go school. They say that better to do homework, distance learning and embroidering and weaving. Parents are very much concern about chastity of girls. Whereas for boys , it does not matter boys can go. Boys will get easily bicycle to there because their education is more important than girls . But in case of girls, scarcity of money and for boys they will borrow money because they are the earning source in future.

SC/ST girls’ schooling, gendered labor and socialization:
“Poor  SC/ST parents are unable to send their children to ‘free’ schools because of costs other than the tuition fee and of forgone income from the children’s work.” ”(NFG,2005.pp.5)

Govt. Teacher think in this regard that SC/ST girls face more problem being born in poor family. They are bound to carry out their traditional job to become able to maintain the family. But private teacher had no idea about the SC/ST girls. Even she did not know who are SC/ST?

Govt has made many provision and plan but  seems that all is not to be well. SC/ST children face more difficulties in terms of language when they track their change from one board to another. In that case , reservation, scholarship, do not serve more  beneficial.  They feel dire need of remedial classes to improve their language for better communication because language is the medium through which one is judged. Therefore, it is necessary to bring into light NPE (GOI1986) had declared: ‘the central focus in the SC’s educational development is their equalization with the non-SC population in all stages and levels of education, in all area and in all four dimensions-rural and urban, male and female. The policy focused on incentives, scholarship, reservations, recruitment of teachers, location of school buildings and  most important ‘constant micro-planning and verification to ensure that the enrolment, retention and successful completion of courses by SC students do not fall at any stage alongside provision of remedial courses to improve their prospects for further education and employment’(GOI 1986).

Muslim girls’ education: financial constrains and communal factors:
“They hold that the guise of ‘religious freedom’ madarasas actually impart a religious education that interprets the freedom to practice gender inequality. Their argument against the new trend towards ‘modernisation of madarasas’ is that this will tend to dis empower muslim girls and deny them a chance of a secular education.” (NFG,2005.pp.10)

In this case, govt. teacher believes that muslim parents are not interested in education. Even parents are also less educated that is why they do not send their daughters to school. Parents do not understand the relevance of education. Another aspect that they are more interested in madarasa and do not like to send their daughters in formal school.
On the other hand, private school teacher believes that main problem  is money. Muslim parents like to send their daughters to school but they prefer madarasa because they are fundamentalist. Muslim educated parents like to send their girls in formal but otherwise they prefer their school (madarasas) because they do not expect from their daughters to be officer and all. If girls get educated more, she will become as  problem for parents to search more educated groom.
The challenges of globlisation:
“polarization of schooling  is creating imbalances which are severely gendered, with parents deciding to send their sons to private schools, whatever their quality in the hope that this education will afford some upward economic mobility.” ”(NFG,2005.pp.11)
Govt. teacher takes a stand that it is simple matter that girls will not become the bread winner of family so why to waste money. If she goes to govt. school what is the problem? She is not going to take part in any competition. It is boy who has to compete with many people. If he will not get decent and quality education, he might not get good job. So if he goes to private school, he will learn many things and will bring happiness in family after getting job. Girls are not our property, she is second property. Ultimately, she has to leave the home after getting married. Therefore, parents put more emphasis towards boys  who will command the family rather than girls.
Private teacher thinks that education matters . She thinks that if parents are well educated they will certainly send their girls in private school without biasness. It is illiterate parents who do this kind of discrimination between girls and boys. But is it fact that sometime due to economical imbalance people prefer to send their daughters in govt school. Parents spend more money by sending their boys in good school because they will become the backbone of family in future. Parents send their daughter in govt school to save money so that they can further spare on their daughters' marriage.
Language as a new market of discrimination against girls in the context of Employment:
Govt. school teacher says that English is hard subject. It is difficult to read and write for girls if they are sent in English medium school. Boys are leborious and if they are not able to do that. Boys will do hard work. Even though, boys are able to do , they will be beaten by teachers, getting good environment and good friend  then they will become perfect master.
Whereas, private school teacher does not accept that it is a discrimination. He thinks that  family occupation matters in this regard. If they are economically sound, they would definitely send their daughters in English medium school.

It is parents stereotype thinking that makes difference in enrollment of schools. It seems that even parents are able to afford , although they would not like to send their daughters in Private school.  We can look at this data “In Mumbai, the ratio of boys to girls in English schools is approximately 3:1, whereas in Pune  the ratio  of boys to girls in Urdu schools is 1:4.” It is clear that language has become a marker of discrimination against girls in the context of employment”(NFG,2005.pp.11)
Discrimination against girls are common in schools. It happens through the language used by the teachers. the content of the text book where text is mostly male oriented. During the discussion with the children , the girls says that teachers ‘scold the girls more but punish (including beating) the boys more.  We can see another forms of discrimination by text “ Also there is a bias in the language use  with terms like ‘mankind’, ‘manmade’, ‘ businessmen’ etc. used. Surprisingly, the Grade vii (new) and vii textbooks which talks about “Giving girls their chance”, presents these examples of gender unfairness. ( Shugra Chunawala,2008.pp.  83)
The importance of sexuality education
“School should also create the space for frank and healthy discussions that enable all young people to come to terms with the role of sexuality in their lives, encourage them to experience freedom from shame, and help them to develop the confidence to express what they see as right or wrong.” (NFG,2005.pp.13)
Girls with disabilities-doubly discriminated”

“Nevertheless, the number of the girls with disabilities is substantial enough to underscore the double discrimination faced by them in terms of gender and disability and multiple discriminations if they also belong to the socially disadvantaged sections of society.” (NFG,2005.pp.13).

Teachers often segregate children on the basis of gender and make them to seat separate. For example “recent  studies of Betul and Hisar districts conforms the persistence of a segregated pattern of seating children.(see chpt. 8 and 10). Though these particular forms of discrimination  have not been witnessed in Nanded district, Maharashtra, that it exists is clear from the fact that boys are asked twice as many questions as girls.”( Vimala Ramachandran,2004.pp 159)

Review of Policies
As of now, there are so many policy and scheme have been made but the stark reality is still maintain. We can understand that whether because of bad policy or bad implementation, policy does not get implemented on the ground. We can read these policy and committee report who play with words. “The most radical departure from the view that girls ‘needed’ a different education came with the recommendations of the Hansa Mehta committee on differentiation of curricula for boys and girls (1964).”(NFG,2005.pp.14)
NPE,1986 gives emphasis on women’s education. it states that,” Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. In order to neutralize accumulate distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge in favour of women. The the national educationa system will play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women..”(NCF,2005.pp.1).
Nationalising Women’s Education:
The education Commission Report (1964-66),however, while debunking gender differences as socially constructed and unscientific, it circumscribed their agency outside of motherhood to choice of ‘careers’,thereby limiting its concerns to the education of urban, middle-class women, who in its vision, could be educated to contribute to national development.” (NFG,2005.pp.14)
Towards Equality:
 “The Committee on the status of Women in  India (CSWI) concluded that women’s productive roles had hitherto remained unacknowledged in policies and consequently their needs had remained un-addressed.”(NFG,2005.pp.15)
“The Sharma Shakti report on Self-employed Women and Women of the Informal Sector was the first committee which made visible the role and contribution of women in the unorganized sector of the economy.”(NFG,2005.pp.15)
The NCSRT also brought a series of teachers’ handbooks to address gender equality in classroom through curricular transactions.
NCF (2000) Gender –girls and women (biological category)
As an isolated category, in terms of provision of equal facilities.
is not just a womens issue…. It’s a peoples issues.s
‘’Equality’ as goal through, increasing representation, sensitive portyals of discrimination,  portyal positive role models, sameness approach. It should be corrective model, not formal approach, equality in terms of outcome.
“The aims of education committed to gender equality cannot be merely to provide girls equal access to education, because “ there is a world  of difference the equal right to education and right to equal education.” (NFG,2005.pp.19)

‘Empowerment’  understood as instrumental ways as education for effective implemenatation of, beter hygiene, two child norm,pop control, upholding traditionand spiritual values, improving social cohesion.supplemenatry income generation. ”(NFG,2005.pp.19).
“Empowerment’ of girls however, is not a product, it is a process. It is the process by which they can challenge relations of power and take control of their lives to assert their rights as independent human beings.”(NFG,2005.pp.26)



The Hidden Curriculum-Beyong tokenism

The dominance of a textbook culture has meant that teachers begin teaching not with what the children know or have experienced but with what they do not know and have not experienced. ”(NFG,2005.pp.21)
The used word seems very confusing and ambiguous when they mention the role of Dr. B.R. Ambedakar in making the constitution of India. They use the word which children may learn and memorize. But later it may be forgotten because they have not understood what does this word stand for ’father of the Indian constitution’.  For instance “Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedakar (1891-1956) is considered the father of the Indian constitution and is also the best known leader of the Dalits”. (p.20).

On the contrary, the way the textbook maker’s project, for other members (dominant and powerful group) very clear presentation. So at first instance, NCERT textbook identity seems that it might be biased.  One might say also that there is exclusion of Dalit Icon from this picture.  For instance, “some of the members who wrote the constitution of India.” (class VI,p.22).



In fact, Schools as institutions that embody collective traditions and human intentions which are the products of identifiable social and economic ideologies. If much of the literature on what schools tacitly teach is accurate, then the specific functions may be more economic than intellectual. If we are honest with ourselves, we must acknowledge that the curriculum field has it is a root in the soil of social control. For instance, “Whose meanings are collected and distributed through the overt and hidden curricula in school? That is, as Marx was fond of saying, reality does not stalk around with a label. The curriculum in schools responds to and represents ideological and cultural resources that come from somewhere. Not all groups’ visions are represented and not all groups’ meanings are responded to. How then, do schools act to distribute this cultural capital? Whose reality stalks in corridors and classrooms of America schools? ((Nancy King,p.44).
Masculinity
“Boys and men also suffer from the stereotyping that exists in a patriarchal culture. Boys are discouraged from being emotional, gentle and caring or from admitting to being weak or fearful.  They are thrust into the role of breadwinners, protectors, warriors.”(NFG,2005.pp.7)
Govt. teacher thinks that boys are physically more stronger than girl that is why they are called masculine. Whereas  private school teacher views that if girl gets same opportunity she can also become physically strong what boy can do.
we see that the construction gender is done through textbook. Schools are the centre where gender construct are embedded by way of teaching. In schools boys are told right from the beginning that you are boy you should not weep or cry. We can look at this photo which reflects how children are laughing and cutting jokes, when a boy weeps. For instance in textbook it is given through illustration “As babies or children when boys fall and hurt themselves, their parents and other family member often console them by saying ‘Don’t cry’. You are a boy. Boys are brave, they don’t cry.”
(class VI,p.15).

There is masculinity and feminity construction into classroom. Girls are considered quiet, passive whereas boys are regarded haraami, active. There is effect of this genetic term in the classroom. For example,”Our teacher does not scold, so nobody sits quiet. Even if she does shout nobody listens. The boys are all haraami…the girls listen, but the boys don’t… They trouble me. They hit me back. (Bhattacharjee, p.367).

Impact of textbooks and curricula

The textbook imagery reflects the idea of women as care-givers and by showing them predominantly as housewives. But in few those instances where they are portrayed in other brave, they appear again in the care-giving role. For instance, “Éxceptional women like Rani Jhansi and Madame Curie were still defined by their domestic roles- textbook writers were careful to point that despite everything they continued to perform their domestic roles.” (NFG,2005.pp.20)

In case of Madam Curie, we see that she has been portrayed both aspects private work (home) and as scientist. She had to do both domestic responsibilities being women. For instance, “even she busies herself in the laboratory, surrounded by chemical fluids, test, tubes and complicated experiment not to mention her scientist-husband. We are informed” Maria used to do to do all the house, wash clothes, cook food and wash dishes. After two years, she gave birth to a girl child. This increased the load of work but did not affect the quality of her work.”(Bhog,p.1641).

Class VI textbook deals with concepts like ‘prejudice’ while giving the reference of rural and urban people. Textbook defines’ Prejudice’ means to judge other people negatively or see them as inferior. But the textbook does not give the proper note to the teachers that it is prejudice (wrong thinking) which is not always right. How one can assume that all teachers are wise and rational?  There is possible that teachers might take it wrong sense that he/she may believe that rural people are dirty, ignorant and superstitious and urban people are spoilt, lazy, cannot be trusted.  For instance, (class VI p. 14) ‘’below are some statements on people living in rural and urban areas tick mark those that you agree with

        

A study by HBCSE on gender aspects of illustrations and writing in the NCERT science textbooks for Grade iii to x came out with new finding. They found that textbooks presents gender biases in various ways. They found lin their study less female figures are shown in stereotypical images (mother, nurse, teachers, etc). Women’s are shown in restricted in domestic occupations. Whereas, they found that men are portrayed in a variety of activities which are economic in nature towards public -sphere. For example.
Figure 1.(classVII,p.4)  Figure 2. (class VII,p.5)

 The NCERT textbook class VII standard has used slang language in the content representation. They have used now and then ‘Dalit’ word is not appropriate according to the dignity of human being. The Indian constitution recognizes every person as equal. It means that every individual in the country irrespective of caste, class, gender, religion and region are recognized as equal.  But the use of derogatory term ‘Dalit’ in the textbook is not suiting from any point. Indian constitution does not allow these types of word to refer any community or caste which may hurt their sentiment and emotion. To address any caste or community, Indian constitution had made certain provision to use decent word like SC/ ST. To use of such derogatory terminology and slang is violating dignity of targeted caste (SC/ST) and against equality of democracy in the classroom. For example,
(Class VII,p.8)

And also the manner, in which caste system and untouchability are presented in the NCERT textbooks class VI and VII, is hurting, shameful, embarrassing and undesirable. It violets human dignity and also threats the existence of the democracy of a nation. Now question arise how a teacher will address this ‘Dalit’ terminology in the class ? For instance “Now let us read a story about the experience of a Dalit child attending school. You have already read about Dalits in the class VI book. Dalit is a term that the so-called lower castes use to address themselves. Dalit means ‘broken’ and by using this word. Lower castes are pointing to how they were, and continue to be, seriously discriminated against”. ( Class VII,p.7)
However, the textbook is very rich and full of worth. A classroom belongs to various backgrounds of caste, class, and religion and region. How one can speak or teach like this? Is it the suitable and appropriates what NCERT textbook presenting in the name of the chapter ‘Equality’? The moment ‘Dalit’ word is addressed, in the classroom, which refers to certain lower caste, they start feeling uncomfortable in the classroom.  It can be avoided, if teachers use, according to Constitution of India, SC/ST for lower caste, then this situation will not arise.
There is no space either within or outside the classroom for cooperation and healthy interaction between boys and girls. Even the games they play are different. during schoolevents, items presented are organized separately for boys and girls.


Conclusion
We can conclude by saying that gender is not issues of men or women, it is a matter of people. Gender is cutting across irrespective of caste ,class and religion. As we know that women have been historically marginalized from their rights. Our education system needs introspection and deliberation on the part of the policy makers, bureaucracy , teachers and also from curriculum developer agencies in producing textbook a success reality with rational objectives on the ground without biased. Let’s not make difference between girls and boys because if one girl gets educated she will educate everybody of the family. Through education , she can assert her right to power and equal dignity in the society. Therefore, we need to discuss about gender and also “There is an urgent need now for serious inquiry into curricula, content and the gendered construction of knowledge, as well as a more critical and pro-active approach to issues of gender.”( ”(NFG,2005.pp.5)



REFERENCES
Vandana Madan. Content Analysis of Classroom Processes Studies; Vimala Ramachandran,2004.(ed.) Gender and Social Equity in Primary Education; Hierarchies of Access.Sage,New Delhi.

Vimala Ramachandran,2004.(ed.) Gender and Social Equity in Primary Education; Hierarchies of Access.Sage,New Delhi.
National Policy on Education (1986) and Programme of Action (1986). New Delhi: GOI.
Dipta Bhog, Gender and Curriculum.
Nell P. Stromquist,Molly Lee Birgit Brock-Utne, The Explicit and the Hidden School Curriculum

ManishChand:How to Make Composting

Understanding the Process of Composting

Making your own compost from garden or household waste is one of the best ideas that anybody can think about it. Let us first talk about waste, from where it comes?  We must have heard about wastes generated in kitchen, garden etc.. But do we realize where the waste goes after its disposal? Does it rotten up or does it get piled up somewhere? Is it consumed by other organisms? Or do we turn a blind eye towards it and allow the Municipal authorities to take care. However, it was of interest to us to see ourselves what exactly happens to the waste generated by us. The treatment it gets at the beginning and the phases there after.

What if the stinking waste gets converted magically to something beneficial? Keeping this in our mind we came up with a few bright ideas to make the best use of waste at source or at least minimizing the contribution of waste generated. Our office was the most suitable site to think of effective waste management. Apart from reducing waste production at source we thought of alternative ideas like composting the canteen waste, vermi composting the garden waste and recycling and reusing paper, tetra packs, plastics etc.

So, we decided upon treating the degradable wastes generated at our office premises. On experimental basis we thought of doing the 'compost' experiment on a small scale.

Plastic crates were arranged for this purpose. We categorized the canteen waste into cooked and uncooked types. We were curious to learn about the time period required for decomposition and changes happening with the waste in terms of color, texture, odors, pest problems etc.

We labeled the crates as follows:

Crate 1: Composting of canteen waste, leftover food(cooked)

Crate 2: Composting of vegetable peels (uncooked).

Treatment of waste , First Week, (5-12-09)

Cooked and uncooked waste from the canteen was collected separately in 2 crates.  Both these wastes were mixed with dry leaves obtained from the garden. These crates were half filled with waste mixture and were kept one meter away from walls. Water was poured into these crates on alternate days. The mixture was mixed regularly.

 

In a day or two, we found ants all over the crates.  The cooked and uncooked waste mixture started smelling slightly. To avoid this stench, we put magic powder + jivika powder (to enhance decomposition) in both crates. 

Second Week (12-1209)

We observed that waste mixture mixed with powders reduced odors remarkably. Towards the end of this week, other than ants we also observed Millipedes. We had an idea that by regularly watering the crates would destroy ant nests and thus would avoid ants. The color of the waste was becoming darker.  The waste in it looked like a paste when freshly watered.

Third week (18-12-09)

There were many changes observed during this week. There were several rats seen around the crates (canteen waste and vegetable waste). Rats had had made huge burrows around both the crates. The rats had also spread soil in

both crates.  So, we tried clearing out the soil from these crates. (However, presence of soil would not harm the composting but the initial parameters kept in mind for decomposition would get disturbed). We now placed the crates on a firm base. We placed the crates on stone to avoid giving the direct exposure of the waste in the crates to the ground. We added the magic powder + jivika regularly along with water. Now the leaves started appearing dull. Grey, brown and black spot were found on the waste. Canteen waste began to decomposing at a faster rate. Towards the end of this week, we had to put powder many times because ants and rats did not stop coming (Some where the thought was that adding more of these powders would avoid intruders in our crates).

Fourth Week( 24-12-09)

The site of composting turned into a dilapidated condition and we could sense a horrible state !  Again there were severals big holes around both crates. We cleared the area around the crates and further made the foundation strong to place the crates. 

Fifth Week, ( 31-12-09 )

We had to throw the cooked waste (there was no other go... despite the use of powders the strong smell continued). Since then, rats had disappeared from the spot (it was good news for us!). Ants and millipedes remained in both crates (but ants vanished when the crates were watered... anyway ants did not bother us now). We found that strong smell from crates because “microbes release gases during the process.” Jayashree Ramdas.(2001)

Sixth Week, (8-01-10)

Now, we had just one crate (uncooked waste). As usual, we added the powders. Towards the end of this week, waste mixture looked darker, the mixture became coarser.  Water is poured and mixed properly.  During hot days the mixture became dry. We learnt the importance of water for decomposition. 

Seventh Week (16-01-10)

Water is poured into crate occasionally. Having put the water, it is mixed properly. We have put again the jivika powder in crate so that it will increase the process of decomposition……

Eighth Week (24-01-10)

Finally, we found that our sincere attempt has come into realization. This weekend, our composting has become ready for nurturing and increasing the fertility for soil and plants.

 

Reference

1- Jayashree Ramdas.(2001), Small Science, Class IV, teacher's Book,  Chapter 10, What Is Thrown Out.