ManishChand:INTELLIGENCE - ITS THEORIES AND MEASUREMENT WITH PEOPLE'S UNDERSTANDING

This paper is an effort towards understanding the adults’ perceptions of intelligence, an intelligent person and intelligent behavior and comparison with theories which are propounded by theorists. With the objective in view, first of all, I have taken the interview and collected their responses. The same questions were asked to all the participants. Questions are given along with appendix. The study participants were 10 college students and research scholars. Their ages ranged from 20 to 30 years. There was an even division of gender: 5 of the 10 students were boys, the other 5 students were girls who participated in this study for open -interview. 2 students from M.Phil , 3 students from MSW (1^st yr) , 1 students from DS(2^nd yr),1 student from DSA(2^nd yr), 2 students from MPH(2^nd yr), 1 student from DM out of 10. The students were confronted with three questions. Their reply was chosen after open-interview with the students of different-2 courses. They all spoke in English as their first language.  .They is following;

Intelligence	Intelligent person	Intelligent behavior
(A)-male.1-Perform  according to situation	Who can deal with sort of problems	Who is supportive always with interest& listen patiently
2- Conscience mind with practical experience	Who Takes rational decision	Who behave according to time and situation
3-Awareness of fact and surrounded things.	Person having full confident and act boldly.	Who does not underestimate others& respect equally.
4-Who is well educated & know theoretical knowledge	Smart person, who uses opportunity in his favor	Using appropriate knowledge at appropriate time.
5-Taking rational decision which helpful in your overall development	Who gives best suitable answer to my question	Acting on rational decision while anticipating on consequences.
(B)-female.6-who takes instance action & useful action	Who is capable to take useful decision	Who can mix up with everyone without hurting anyone.
7-Using presence of mind to solve the situation	Who reflects with experience to resolve the problem	Respecting equally with balancing& convincingly
8-Thinking right at the right moment.	Who make informal decision with logic	Who behaves according to situation in mature way.
9-Intervene with societal decision	who is able to make herself /himself understand a theory or situation etc, in own way,	To make a decision or an argument which is explaining our understanding at a present situation/time, something which you can do or argue 4 confidently according to our understanding
10-To make strategy or work according to the way that social situation is demanding	Who is wise and act consciously all time.	Who takes others in her/his confident and deals with them nicely.

Now, I will look at how theorists have given their definition of intelligence. And what they say about it. After that I will compare and make connection whether they are similar or difference.

According to Binet   “Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.”

Oxford Dictionary explains “Intelligence as the power ofperceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing.’’

According to Gardner and Hatch(1989:433)  ‘’Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture"   

Sternberg,( 1985 )” mental activity directed towardpurposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life” 

H.G. Wells defines ‘’It is general mental and behavioral adaptability to new problems and condition of life’’

Perkins (1995) “Intelligence is not only multiple but includes aspects of values and personality as well as cognitive skill.’’ 

According to Wechsler ‘’ Intelligence is global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with her/his environment.’’

Comparative study

Literally speaking, individual variations in definitions are common within and across all species. So this comparative study may not be exception one and cannot escape from that variations. If I first look at psychological notions of intelligence, find many similarities from the common people notion of intelligence. Except Gardner, above mentioned all the theorists’ ( Binet, Stern, Wells, Perkin, Wechsler and Oxford Dictionary) definitions seem to be quite at hand. If I compare one what Stern says ‘’ Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements’’ is giving to great extent same meaning as a student said ‘’ To make strategy or work according to the way that social situation is demanding.’’  By and large, what similarities I figured out in (Wells, Perkin, Wechsler, Binet. Oxford dictionary with adults’ definitions ) seem that both are saying intelligence in one respect is intended to a ability, to change maker, take decision at right time , capability to think rationally in course of time, to change the course of events and, in turn, change an unfavorable potential future into a more favorable actual one.

On the other hand, when dealing with the dissimilarities what exactly I find in Gardner's definition seems to be somewhat dissimilar.“Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” does not fit and suit anywhere with students’ lay definition of intelligence. In this respect, the work of Howard Gardner seems to be one of the most arguable since his multiple intelligence theory, being new, has already provoked numerous discussions as for its reliability. In fact, the Gardner’s definition (multiple theory of intelligence) emphasize that each kind of intelligence is closely related to a definite sphere of life or human activity and, in such a way, individuals with different kinds of intelligence dominating may be more or less successful in different fields respectively to their kinds of intelligence. But no single student talked that intelligence is ability which is built in cultural setting.

                                                      

Looking at critically and going into deep, intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. In fact, intelligence is ability, no doubt but evaluating intelligence is about more than merely determining whether it is right or wrong.  Even Sternberg has never made a final definition. For an example, Sternberg says “to my knowledge, every investigator who actually studies the behavior genetics of human intelligence believes that there is some role both for heredity and environment in intelligence.’’ But later he seems not to be stick with his own opinion that and gives controversial statement.  He says again “I personally am not enthusiastic about to attempts to assign percentages to heredity and environment because what percentages are assigned depend on so many factors including geographic, temporal, and educational point of view’’ page 14. So it has become ample clear that his definition of intelligence is different from adults and not universal.

It seems that, definition variability is a fact of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment), and individuals are no exception to this. Above definitions vary from one another, may be because of its geographical location (rural or urban), cultural, educational level, and gender and so on. They also may vary along with psychological dimensions. Their definitions may be considered as best or dull, reasonable, satisfactory, good enough or not good, etc. Therefore, one can maintain by saying that why not theorists and adults definitions may similar and differ from each other. The list of variations can be endless.  For an example, there is a reason to believe that vocabulary is good measure of intelligence because it measures directly children’s ability to acquire information in context and in can be seen through their writings.  As some psychologists claim “It is well known that vocabulary is one of the best predictors, if not the best single predictor; of overall IQ score (Jensen, 1980; Metarazzo, 1972)

I find that many psychologists have defined intelligence differently in the articles. One of the interesting argument in favor of the role played by inherited characteristics which is given by Vernon (1979). He points that “Children in most cases receive same similar environment, but their measured intelligence can differ by 10, 20 or 30 IQ points on the same tests. Genetically it is found that each child would draw a different combination of genes from his or her parents’’ pp. 99 .On the other hand if we see environmentally, it does not happen what we expect.  This genes carried by parents which do not affect their behavior but can become and appear dominant in children in form of hair and facial shape. 

During the middle Ages, it was believed that one’s social status was determined by one’s parentage. If you were born a noble, a noble you remained. If you were born a serf, so you remained. But during 21th century, it has changed and become clear that one’s ability is regarded by her/his achievement. Now, there is more cognitive abilities required for various kinds of school and job success than measured by IQ and related constructs (such as NET, SET, CAT, SAT, GMAT,). For an example it is proved by Ceci and Liker (1986) “Persons who are successful in making bets at the race track and who use highly complex mental algorithms are intelligent.”

Moving ahead, talking about intelligent behavior if I do compare psychologists’ with students above mentioned, who believe that our behaviors are influenced by our personal traits, on the contrary, some others hold the view that our behaviors are influenced more by situational factors. This latter view is known as situational context, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s behavior which may change into aggressive, or may behave in a submissive, respectful manner with others.  For an instance, all psychologists agree by saying “At the level of definition that intelligence behavior involves adaptation to the environments and might not apply as well in nonwestern ones (Cole, 1990; Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 1982).” 

 It means that individual intelligence behavior also differ one another. That is why I find that theorists & adults' understandings are quite different about intelligent behavior. According adults, intelligent behavior is something supportive, respect others view equally, behaves politely according to time. It appears that, intelligence provides an understanding of how people adapt their behavior according to the environment they live in. If we watch an intelligent person’s behavior, we are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships. To support my statement one psychologist saying may be helpful. Kamin (1974) claims “There is no credible evidence for any hereditary effects at all on intelligence behavior. The heritability of intelligence will depend, how intelligence is defined.’’

Conclusion

Finally, in light of my observation, what I understand as of now, that there could be no fix demarcation of intelligence. Intelligence answer depends on a number of factors, including how you define the construct compare to context. As Gardner (1983) who argues that “Intelligence is not one thing but many factor influences.” By and large I found some similarities which both (theorists& adults) are reinforcing that intelligence in one respect is intended to ability,  decision maker, to take rational decision and action at right time ,use of presence of mind(general ability) to change the course of events and, in turn, change an unfavorable potential future into a more favorable actual one.  On the other hand, theorists who defined intelligence as heredity and cultural built vary from adults’ definition. But theorists’ papers have enlightened, sensitized and strengthened my understanding on multi-factorial issues which are interwoven. Moreover, I cannot draw conclusions about individuals from sample because intelligence is not something that can be directly observed, like a person’s height or weight.  We can only infer its presence by watching people’s behavior. Eventually, to me, what I can assume as my understanding about those basic thrusts behind Intelligence that I have got, they are various factors that function such as heredity, socio-culture environment, educational level, geographical setting. These all aspect gets impinged in giving a shape to individual’s ability, behavior and perspectives in every walk of life. 

                                     REFERENCES

Robert J. Sternberg. Myth, Counter Myths and Truth about Intelligence

Moghaddam. F.M (2005) Great Ideas in Psychology, Cultural and Historical Introduction. Oxford   Publication.

Robert J. Sternberg. The Holy Grail of General Intelligence. Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000)

Gardner ,H. ( 1983) . Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York :

 Kamin,L.(1974) The Science and Politics of IQ. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jensen ,A.R. (1980).  Bias in Mental Testing. New York: Free Press.

Ceci , S.J.,& Liker,J. ( 1986). Academic and nonacademic intelligence: An experimental  separation. In R. J. Sternberg & R.J. Wagner (Eds.), Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origin of Competence in the Everyday World (pp. 119-142). New York: Cambridge University, Sapporo,japan.

Cole,M.(1990). Mind as a Cultural Achievement : Implications for IQ testing. Unpublished manuscript. Hokkaido University, Sapporo Japan.

NCERT text book. Variation Psychological Attributes.

‘Evaluating Intelligence’ by Kristan Wheaton,Mercyhurst College and Diane Chido,McManis and Monsalve Associates.

Clark, Robert M. (2004). Intelligence analysis :   A  Target –Centric Approach. CQ Press, Washington, DC.

Fonatana,D. (1988) . Psychology for Teachers. London;BPs Books.

And others article given on’ Creativity’ , ‘Intelligence.’

APPENDIX A-   Questions

1-     According to you, what will be a definition of intelligence?

2-     Whom will you consider as a intelligent person?

3-       What is intelligent behavior?

ManishChand:THE NEED FOR MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION AND ITS ROLE

Through this paper I aim to develop an understanding about the need for multilingual education and its role in Indian context. I will first discuss background to discuss multilingual education and the work of few linguists/theorists who have worked on language proficiency and cognitive development I will try to explain on how teaching-learning can happen effectively in the multilingual classroom and how teaching model should be used actively to impart awareness about student’s linguistic resource. In the later part, i will deal with the role of multilingual education in the case of Indian classroom.

Literally, multilingual education uses more than one language as the media of instruction. The teacher develops English skills and teaches content in the native language. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles and instructional needs of students.

Most definitions of multilingual involve the competence of the individual. For example, some linguists, like Bloomfield (1933), says that the term should be applied only to those individuals who possess "native-like" ability in both languages, while others (e.g. Haugen, 1956) take the opposite view that,’ multilingual/bilingual should be characterized by minimal rather than maximal qualifications.’’ Weinreich (1953, p. 1) takes a more neutral position in defining multilingual/bilingual as the "practice of alter- natively using two languages." According to Hornby( 1977, p. 3) ‘’The best way to deal with this variation would seem to be to recognize that bilingualism is not an all or none property, but is an individual characteristic that may exist to degrees varying from minimal competence to complete mastery of more than one language .’’

If we notice, the framework of BICS and CALP by Cummins bilingualism can be seen as boon to Indian classrooms. It was earlier believed that bilingualism has a negative relationship and creates hurdles in cognitive development and scholastic achievement (Jesperson 1922; Saer 1923). Several studies have shown that there is highly positive relationship between bilingualism, cognitive flexibility and scholastic achievements.(Peal and Lambert 1962; Gardner and Lambert 1972; Cummins and Swain 1986). Even recent study, the language paper in National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) quotes various researches that provide us with the evidences to prove that ‘’Bilingual children not only have control over several different languages but are also academically more creative and socially more tolerant. The wide ranges of linguistic repertoire that bilingual children control equips them to negotiate different social situations more efficiently and are found to excel in divergent thinking."

Multilingual education under this approach goes one step further than the previous approach and is also intended to make pupils from ethnic/cultural groups competent in two language through bilingual pedagogical approach. According to Banks (1988), multilinguality should not be limited to pupils from diverse background/ethnic groups, but all teachers should at least have multilingual competence and preferably be cross-culturally competent which will highly helpful in teaching process.

Multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, linguistic pluralism, an ideology of language diversity, which celebrates the differences among groups of people. Teaching pedagogy can be suitable place for utilizing the multiplicity of languages available in a classroom. Linguistic pluralism not only assumes that minorities and ethnic groups have rights, but that their life-styles are legitimate and desirable ways of participating in society . As suggested by Agnihotri R.K.(1995) ‘’Multilingualism is an assets can be used as a resource, a teaching strategy, and a goal; that the analysis of subaltern discourses has already brought out the significance of the contribution of the underprivileged in history and such sites need to be invoked in day today teaching in the classroom.’’ He father rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

Another indicator of effective communication of content in the multilingual classrooms could be when children read aloud. In a traditional school, "reading" in the lower grades often consisted of repeating aloud what the teacher read from the board or text. In most cases, pupils were not even looking at the words they were "reading." In one second grade, for example, there were only eight books for thirty pupils, so that most were repeating the words of the "reading" lesson without even seeing them once.

Multilingual education is one that enables formal instruction or learning to take place in two languages that are potentially viable means of communication, instruction, and learning. Bilingual education consists of giving the child a part of his or her primary education in the mother tongue, or the dominant local language, if practicable, and then using English as the medium of instruction for subsequent education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Indian context, there are two languages in contact (English and Hindi) are both well developed medium of instruction, learning, and communication, and opportunities and facilities exist for a balanced bilingual education, which implies the same degree of effectiveness in the use of both English and Hindi for educational and other purposes.

Many parents fear, that learning in two or three languages at a time is very difficult for the children. But in fact this is not an issue. When child centered, interactive methods are used constantly, every child can acquire two or three languages on a high level of competency, without even noticing, how this happens. From the psychological point of view it is not more difficult for children in a multilingual class than in mother tongue education and a lot easier than in a class with a foreign language of instruction only. Therefore multilingual education helps both the linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children.

In multilingual education part of the subjects are taught in the mother tongue, the others in the second and third language. In this way one can first of all guarantee the even development of the mother tongue. The child can learn to read, write and express complex thoughts in the mother tongue. At the same time pupils feel comfortable in the lessons, which are taught in the language they are already familiar with, because they understand what is being asked of them. Similar experience as i had in our course contact programme. They can experience their abilities, which develop in them a feeling of self-confidence. This self-confidence helps the children to boldly tackle learning also in the subjects, which are taught in the second and third language. Knowing that they are not stupid, students can learn with curiosity and effort. For the children whose second language is English, develops much quicker than in the monolingual (Hindi or languages).

It is important, that certain principles are kept in the multilingual classroom. The most important of these principles is that the teachers work without translation, in order for the children to hear coherent texts in both the mother tongue and the second language. If the principles of multilingual education are followed, children not only develop language skills in two or more languages, but also, surprisingly, show a linguistic development above the norm. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that these children acquire two linguistic systems in a parallel way and thus develop two or three times more scope. Therefore they become more creative and inventive in problem-solving. In addition to that these people can learn mother tongue, second language norm and acquire any other foreign language in their adult life much easier.

The organization of the educational process according to multilingual education, give every child access to mother tongue education, which is so crucial for its general development. In this way all pupils can develop their full intellectual potential and at the same time receive all necessary linguistic skills in the other languages crucial for them. By reorganizing schooling from the traditional divided system to multilingual education, the schools can even distribute the children among the classes and solve the problem of overfilled language.

Moving ahead, the role of a bilingual education, instruction and research that can lead to the development of receptive language arts (listening and reading skills) should be actively promoted in the two languages, for a number of reasons: (i) The two language skills provide an essential gateway to learning, in first or second language situations, and also facilitate the transfer of learning from one situation to another. (ii) Bilingual presupposes the achievement of a reasonable measure of linguistic and communicative competence in the two target languages, and one sure way to achieve. It is by systematically, developing, listening and reading skills in both languages. (iii) If the achievement of balanced multilingualism, as defined earlier, is the ideal, then every effort must be made to develop the bilingual person's "knowledge of and insight into the nature of language" (Lefevre, 1970, p. 337), and receptive skills in the two languages, either con- currently or at different stages.

The another important role of multilingual education is, apart from the acquisition of two or more languages, the children are confronted with representatives of various ethnic and linguistic groups in everyday life and schools, which develop in them excellent intercultural skills and tolerance, and which supports the development of a peaceful civil society in the multilingual and multi diverse background country like India. It become more important when in classes interactive teaching methods are used which enable the children to learn actively, enable the teachers to determine the needs of each child, and uses communication in the target languages as the basic method for learning languages and content. Since in multilingual classes each child receives education in its mother tongue and in the foreign language, the classes can be ethnically and linguistically mixed, depending on the needs and possibilities of each region. With multilingual education the parents’ dilemma while choosing the language of instruction for their children, is resolved and at the same time the problem of overfilled English classes is diffused. The model of multilingual education also alleviates the lack of teachers, able to teach in English.

There are some certain demands that multilingual educations requires.

· Increasing use of local language in schools

· Building a foundation of child-centered learning approaches

· Enabling more local language speakers to become teachers

· Making materials available in local languages

·  Promoting participatory democracy and effort to sustain and enhance the degree of multilingualism and metalinguistic awareness that children have

· Early education in mother tongue promotes language development and pre-literacy skills

To become acquainted with each other's language, cultures, learn to appreciate them, and learn how to relate to each other .

Conclusion

Therefore, in the light of my observation, from above explanation, it is confirmed that multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, which denotes linguistic pluralism, and diversity, language proficiency, scholastic achievement, cognitive flexibility, and social tolerance.. It also celebrates the differences among groups of people and gives due respect to one another language preparing students to become global citizens in a multicultural, multilingual world, by providing the opportunity for all. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles in classroom and instructional needs of students. Multilingual education helps both in linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children. In multilingual classroom, teaching will become interactive if the teacher uses classroom as resource in terms of language. And such classroom, if children’s mother tongue get due regard, they will learn quickly and participate actively and confidently. That is why, Agnihotri rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

REFERENCES

Multilingual conferencing: effective teaching of children from refugee and asylum-seeking families® Geri Smyth,University of Strathclyde, UK,.Published by: Sage

Agnihotri, R. K. (1995). Multilingualism as a classroom resource. In K. Heugh, A. Sieruhn, &

P. Pluddemann (Eds.), Multilingual education for South Africa (pp. 3–7). Johannesburg,

Germany: Heinmann..

Bilingual Education in a Multilingual School System: Nigeria Author(s): Solomon Unoh Source: Journal of 
Reading, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Nov., 1985), pp. 124-130 Published by: International Reading Association.

Bloomfield, L. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1933.

Hornby, P.A. Bilingualism: psychological, social and educational implications. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

Haugen, E. Bilingualism in the Americas: a bibliography and a research guide. Mont- gomery: University of Alabama Press, 1956.

Weinreich, U. Languages in contact. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953.

Baker, Colin. 1996. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon,

England: Multilingual Matters.

Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education by Jasone Cenoz ; Fred Genesee Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2 (Summer, 2001), pp. 331-332 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Bilingual Education Success, but Policy Failure Author(s): Nancy H. Hornberger Source: Language in Society, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Jun., 1987), pp. 205-226 Published by: Cambridge University Press.

Approaches to Multicultural Education in the United States: Some Concepts and Assumptions Author(s): Margaret Alison Gibson Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 1, Special .
Anniversary Issue: Highlights from the Past (Spring, 1984), pp. 94-120 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Does Negotiation of Meaning Promote Reading Comprehension? A Study of Multilingual Primary School Classes Author(s): Kris Van den Branden Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jul. - Aug. - Sep., 2000), pp. 426-443 Published by: International Reading Association.

Teacher Collaboration and talk in multilingual classrooms

Creese, A. Multilingual Matters Ltd: Clevedon, 2005. 217pp. Pbk £24.95.

ISBN: 1-85359-821-6

Author(s): Irma Blanco Casey Reviewed work(s): Language and Education in Multilingual Settings by
Bernard Spolsky Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 343-344 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Interviewing in a Multicultural/Multilingual Setting Author(s): Tara Goldstein Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 3, Qualitative Research in ESOL (Autumn, 1995), pp. 587 -593 Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL).

Who's the Boss? How Communicative Competence Is Defined in a Multilingual Preschool Classroom Author(s): Min-Ling Tsai and Georgia Earnest Garcia Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 230-252 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Sustaining Linguistic Diversity within the Global Cultural Economy: Issues of Language Rights and Linguistic Possibilities Author(s): Naz Rassool Source: Comparative Education, Vol. 40, No. 2, Special Issue (28): Postcolonialism and Comparative Education (May, 2004), pp. 199-214 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Multilingual Reading Theory Author(s): Jill Fitzgerald Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 2003), pp. 118-122 Published by: International Reading Association.

Identity Constructions in Multilingual Advertising Author(s): Ingrid Piller Source: Language in Society, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 2001), pp. 153-186 Published by: Cambridge University Press.

Multilingual Interviewing in Israel Author(s): Haim Blanc Source: The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 2, Of Sociology and the Interview (Sep., 1956), pp. 205-209 Published by: The University of Chicago Press.
Bilingual Education and English-Only: A Language-Planning Framework Author(s): Nancy H. Hornberger Source: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 508, English Plus: Issues in Bilingual Education (Mar., 1990), pp. 12-26 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism: Views from a Community in France Author(s): Wallace E. Lambert, Fathali M. Moghaddam, Jean Sorin, Simone Sorin Source: Sociological Forum, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Sep., 1990), pp. 387-411 Published by: Springer.

Diversity and Multicultural Pedagogy , An Analysis of Attitude and Practices, ,within an American Pacific Island University, Kirk Johnson and Yukiko Inoue,University of Guam.USA.Published by” Sage.

ManishChand:BOOK REVIEW ON TEACHERS' WORK

The editor of the book, R.W. Connell is Professor of Sociology at Macquarie University and one of Australia’s leading social theorists, has to be congratulated on having achieved publication of such a masterpiece. This book is an outcome of a research project (described in the earlier book, ‘Making the Difference’ undertaken with D.J. Ashenden, S. Kessler and G.W. Dowsett). His noteworthy works include; Which Is Up?( 1983), Making the Difference( 1982), The Child’s Construction of Politics(1971) etc.

I have decided to choose this book because it is related to my interest and career. I love teaching and doing it. I want to be a value based teacher because I love being with people, working with and sharing what I have as of now. I found exactly right this book which enlighten, sensitized, moved my heart and strengthen my understanding giving realistic and vivid portrayal of Teachers’ lives, classroom and staffrooms providing an absorbing description of the life and work of teachers.

This book is divided into three parts including various sections. First Part of the chapter deals with teachers’ lives. As the author has taken interview with many teachers and found different perspectives and attitude towards their teaching job. This whole part is devoted to teachers’ lives. As we can see different-2 teachers,. Margrel Blackall is a teacher who comes from a working class background. For her,’’ School is different world, that’s all. We didn’t have books at home. I didn’t join a library until I was 14’’ (p.14) and for Terry, he is a also technical teacher of working class background. “I look on teaching as my bread and butter. It is not a ministry” (pp. 36). On the contrary, Angus a elite school grammar teacher” So I came over here, I have not got something going here if you were interested. And seeing as the he offered me more money-not that that was any inducement (laugh)-so I came. And I would think that one of the good aspects of the state system is that it does provide for mobility.” (p.40)

It seems that the concept of school varies person to person and it depends upon to socio-cultural, economical background. Money matters for everyone .Although the role of teachers in elementary school in Indian context are viewed negative performance and image as Poonam Batra (2005) rightly pointed out “for the last two decades the school teacher as a former centre piece of progress of social change is reduced to a mere object of educational reform or worse a passive agent of the prevailing ideology of the modern state’’

The Part Two, ‘Teachers’ Work’ , it deals with an industrial sociology of teachers that concerns the workplace, the labor process and division of labour, the curriculum, relationship with kids, and the school as a workplace. This book emphasizes teachers’ labor process as a point of departure for a wide range of problems. Teachers’ work can be understood as a particular labor process and as governed by a particular division of labor. The division of labor segregated in the schools according to the different contents of learning, the age of the student and difficulty of the content (subject), and complex set of rule of time table. We can see
“Rosa Marshall noted how as a new member of staff, she got’ all bottom class’. This is common and even in Indian education system. Another teacher, “Alan Watson teaches the year 12 lower stream in his boy’s private school because the upper stream is monopolized by a teacher who has been there since 1944, and is an expert on exam techniques.” (p.82)

Apart from teaching segregation of labor, the sexual division of labor is one of the most conspicuous issues about the teaching workforce which is operating between sectors of education as well as within schools. We can notice in the textbook as Rosa Marshall mentions that “in the state school, all the subject heads, and the principal, were men. Even at St Margaret’s College, a school for girls, only the mathematics teachers were all men. She finds that it has now changed to some extent. Though the head of the science department is still a man and there are no men at all in English and social sciences department.” (p.83)

In same Part Two, The Curriculum’ is a definition of the pupils’ learning, and also a definition of the teachers’ work. The way it is organized and the social practices that surround it, have profound consequences for teachers. We can see “the first is a direct consequence of the hegemony of the competitive academic curriculum. Marginalized curricula can gain space, status and resources in the schools by redefining themselves as part of the hegemonic curriculum. The process is like the ‘Sanskritisation’ of upwardly mobile caste in India. To register their arrival and claim prestige, they adopt more and more Brahmin social custom and religious observances.” (p.98)
It is clear from the above explanation that relations of class, culture and gender are embedded in the curriculum. It follows that reform of curriculum itself, in some measure, a reconstitution of these structures. Likely Apple has showed that ‘’the role of school in selecting, preserving, and passing on conceptions if competence, ideological norms, and values (and often only certain social groups ‘knowledge’)-all of which are embedded within both the overt and hidden curricula in schools’’ (p. 58)

In same Part Two, ’Relationship with Kids’, it points out about teachers relation with kids is crucial for overall development of children. And discipline is considered as guarantee to the parents that the kids will not get into trouble. Discipline is also important theme in the public image of private schooling. Parents say giving example that he /she studies in private school it means, children will be civilized and will become something after coming out from the school. Discipline will not be barrier in way of teaching if teachers are having professional teaching pedagogy. A professional teacher focuses on subject content and innovative methods (how to plan a lesson and how to make learning as fun using by innovative activities and plays). If teachers are well equipped of these professional skills then problems would not occur what Shulman (2004) says ‘’ What makes teaching impossible (is) within the classrooms, the teacher is constantly torn among competing and incompatible pedagogical demands’’

In same Part Two ‘The School as a Workplace’ generally parents think that social control in schools is come under in terms of teachers’ control of the students. On the contrary, all most workers, even teachers themselves are subjects to be a system of supervision. “Close supervision causes resentment among them. And close supervision also contradicts the ideology of professionalism which education authorities often want to encourage among teachers for other reasons. This notion has been an effective weapon in campaigns by teachers unions against management control.” It seems that under supervision, teachers now have become robot just like artificial electronic device. It would be better if I say in words of Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves ‘‘teachers must be appreciated and understood in terms of their purpose ,as people, and in terms of their work context-as ‘total teachers’. Teachers in other words, should not be seen as mere technicians, ‘delivering’ a national curriculum or anything else’’ (p.58)

In same Part Two ‘The School as a Workplace’, under the subtitle ‘The Gender Regime’ even gender relations inside a school are of course interwoven and schools mark out gender division for their pupils. We can visualize such as in the textbook “uniforms (skirts and blouses vs slacks and shirts), sports (netball vs football), forms of address (Yes, Miss), curriculum tracks and electives (typing vs technical drawing) and so on’’ (p.139). Even monitors of the class often are selected to boys so that they can control the class in absence of teacher. I am reminded of Rubina Saigol’s paper, also regarding the same critically examines how the civics text describes ‘’The portrayal of women and men in sex bound roles confirms the patriarchal notion that men are the legitimate, inside real actors in the social arena: women are the unworthy outsiders.” (p.138)
The best example i can offer from Nandini Battacharjee’s paper ‘’ our teacher tells the monitor, you are a girl and you can’t keep the class quiet. See Gagan.( Raju,10;4b) ‘’ Still, these practices are in existence and seem operating quite similar in Indian context. It is seen that girls are told to opt for easy and soft subjects as optional course because of people stereotype thinking towards women.
Similarly, we can also see good example as AnnMarie Wolpe examines in her paper critically some of the conventional approaches which explain different achievement between the both sexes. “Woman’s ambition is tied to her role in marriage and to the goals directly related to marriage, whereas man’s ambition is linked to his occupation and as such of a material nature.” (p. 297)

Last, Part Third is devoted to being a teacher, teachers’ outlook, and teachers’ politics and power.
‘Being a Teacher’, the major goal of each teacher should be the development of their students in accordance to the basic demands of the modern world as independent, intellectual, social, and responsible citizens. The basic goals of education and teaching in particular, may be achieved in different ways and in this respect, the effectiveness of teaching depends on a type of a teacher which may vary dramatically being feminity and masculinity. John Welton, a conservative teacher in a conservative boys’ school, seems a model of patriarchal attitudes, strong on discipline and regimentation, affirm supporter of the cadets. When he is asked what do if he were principal, after stressing academic work, he goes on: “The second thing would be to have a very strong cultural school………………..and I think the schools have a part to play here, by showing sensitive and civilized behavior that this sort of thing is abhorrent.” (p.157)

Now, we can find out easily how a teacher’s work is considered and she/he is given order by senior officer/ principal in schools. Teachers have no autonomy to take decision and freedom to teach their own way. ‘’Deputy Headmistress of St. Margaret’s College and a social science teacher of twenty years experience is of view that helping children to learn is deceptive simple proposition. She suggests and points out to teachers “you have to like kids, and be prepared to explain things over and over’’ page 69. Here, I am reminded of Shuman’s(, Autonomy and Obligation ,2004) paper talks “The choices are severely constrained by decision made outside the individual classroom, e.g., the assignment of pupils to schools and of pupils-within schools to classrooms, the section of text book series….with an increased emphasis on controls from above, on the remote control of teaching via policies’’

In the Third Part,’ Teachers’ Outlooks’ it deals four types of outlooks that teachers’ have towards students. The first is a set of terms that have to do with their success at formal learning: academically ‘good’ or ‘weak’ or ‘poor’, ‘average’ ‘middling’. The same teachers’ outlook towards Black students we can find also in C. Wright mentions in his paper conversation between Black students and White teacher; Paul says (black student) “I am not saying that we cause trouble, but I am just saying the teachers think black boys are always going causing trouble. That is what they think.” (pp.109-125)‘’ The second set of concepts, one is ‘a trier’, another is ‘slack’; one is a hard worker’, another ‘will not work’ at all. We can see as Mary Coleman neatly rings the changes on the two axes, speaking of working-class kids who are not being selected by the school: “ I think you can divide them into two categories: those that can work and won’t, and those that can’t work and won’t.” (p.169)The third set of concepts is ‘quiet’ vs ‘noisy’; cheeky’ ‘behavior problem’, ‘trouble maker’. Hell in the classroom and ‘normal easy-going kids’. The fourth set of concepts is, ‘personality clash, disorganized’, ‘manly little bloke’ and a ‘mouse emerging. This all classification comes under’ “Labelling’ Approachas as discussed by Sarup’s The Importance of Classroom Studies (pp.68-80) and also explained by Ray C. Rist’s On Understanding the process of Schooling : The Contributions of Labeling Theory (pp.292-303). They have unraveled in their paper how students are decoded and given certain title by their respective teachers on the premises of students’ performance and background.

In Third Part, under subtitle ‘Images of Teaching’ it deals that an important element in Teachers’ thinking about teaching is belief that it is a socially responsible, and dignified job. For”Margaret it is clear that the dignity of teaching is very much bound with the ability to teach your subject properly, that is with the academic curriculum.” (p.173) but we find opposite that the teacher who had the Guru image (Kale, 1970) in the society, can no longer image analogous reverence. The teacher is viewed as an instrument of imparting of whatever is decided by the system. Leaving apart what is to be taught, her/his voice has no representation even in how teach and assess the children. This is the worst problem our teachers especially the elementary school teachers are facing.

In Third Part ‘Teachers’ Politics and Power’ is a discussion of teachers as a social group and as a force in educational politics. Teachers are divided among themselves by the institutional arrangement of the education system. The big issue on which a progressive or conservative division opens up is discipline. The staff of Greenway High is spilt on this as Len Johnson reports;
“You get interpretations of rules. I look at the spirit of what is being done and I do not really care if the kids-in what way they are doing it, and I tend to bend all the time, just so long as I can see the kids are genuine and not mucking around……………………………….There is such a diversity of opinion on discipline.” (p.165)

Conclusion
Thus, taking into account, all above mentioned, it is possible to conclude by saying that teachers play an extremely important role in the process of education. Connell has explored the role of teachers as a social responsible group involved in educational reform; their social and political ideas; the divisions among them; and how their interests may be served or damaged in attempting to change highly unequal education systems at large The book’s main objective is to contribute to a difficult but strategic debate about social inequality and the future of public schooling. This book has become relevant in helping and developing my understanding of these processes in certain ways: teachers ‘lives, an absorbing description of the life, Teachers’ work, teachers’ world. These lessons should be viewed as an essential experience that provides opportunities for the further professional growth of those who are involved in teaching or want to become a good teacher. I can say only this that teacher’s work can never end. From the role of everyday teaching process to managerial to the role as a member of the society, teachers play various roles to ensure that the education system and the society as a whole move along side by side. In actuality, they can define the outcome of the teaching process and it is their responsibility to provide possibly more efficient development of students. As the analysis of the lessons discussed above has shown there are different types of teachers among which democratic one is the most effective one. At the same time, to achieve positive results in teaching it is necessary to provide harmonic development of students, including not only their intellectual but also aesthetic and social skills.

REFERENCES
.
Classroom and lecture notes during contact period
Sarup,M (1978). Marxism and Education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Wright C.(1987)Black Students-White teachers, in Tryona,B.(Ed.). (1987). Racial Inequality in education, London: tavistock Publications
Nandini Bhattacharjee; Through the Looking Glass: Gender Socialization in a Primary School, Published in Sarswati.T.S(ed).( 1999). Culture, Socialization and Human Development Theory, Research and Applications in India New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Kohn, A and Wolpe A. (1978). Feminism and Materialism: Women and Modes of Production, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves ; The Teacher as a Person ,pub. in Teaching and Learning in the Primary School (ed.) Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne, first Indian reprint 2005,Routledge.falmer in association with the Open University.
Batra,Poonam (2005): ‘’ Voice and Agency of Teachers-Missing Link in National Curriculum Framework 2005’’ EPW,October 1-7,No.4(1986),pp.4347-4356.
Hargreaves, Andy (1996): ‘’ Guit-exploring the Emotions of Teaching’’ in Changing Teachers, Changing Times- Teachers’ Work and Culture in the Postmodern Age, Cassell, Reprinted 1996.
Lee S. Shulman (ed.) (2004) Autonomy and Obligation: the Remote Control of Teaching,Chapter 4,The Wisdom of Practice,Jossy Bass,pp.133-161.
Kale, Pratima (1970) The Guru and the Professional- the Dilemma of the Secondary School Teacher in Poona, India’’ Comparative Education Review, Vol.14,No.3,(Oct.,1970),pp.,371-376
Michael and Andy Hargreaves, The Teacher as a Person in Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne (ed.). Teaching and Learning in Primary School, Routledge Falmer,(pp.67-72.)
Lee Shulman ,Those Who Understand Knowledge Growth in Teaching, in Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne (ed.) Teaching and Learning in Primary School,Routledge Falmer,pp.84-88.
.