ManishChand:ROUSSEAU'S THOUGHT ON EDUCATION

Rousseau (1712-1778) was a distinguished French philosopher. Emile (1966) is famous work on education. He was deeply influenced by French Revolution. He believes that social institutions are the cause of the all evils. He also thinks that everything is good but after coming in hand of human it becomes evil. He preferred freedom in everything and opposed against all kind of restriction, rules and principles. He is of view that ‘human beings are born free but chained by society’. I found this very interesting citation in his ‘Emile’. He is disillusioned by city and society. He remarks that city is the graveyard of human being.

Basically, his thought about child centered in education. He considers that life is education. He goes saying that education is natural process, not mechanical. It is internal development not collection of information. He gives emphasis that children should be given education according their interest and ability. He says that child should be considered as child during delivering education. He has given reinforcement towards children’s natural development. Moreover, he believes that external knowledge (books) should not be imposed over child.

In Emile, he has personified Emile as boy and Shopie as girl. He wants to give both different kinds of educations. Rousseau thinks that Emile would do productive work whereas Sophie would do reproductive work.  According to Rousseau, curriculum should be consists of Human, nature, and things. Curriculum should be made according child’s interest and ability.

Rousseau’s approach to education is learning by doing, observing and experiencing. He hates books because books teach what he does not know. He believes that our first teacher is our hand, legs and eyes. He gives stress on visual training method. He asserts that leave child alone and let child explore the truth and truth not to be told. He has absolute faith in nature so he views that lap of nature is good school. He put individual importance for education on the basis of children’s interest, capability and ability so girls and boys should not be given same education. In this way Rousseau thinks to give different education to women. According to Rousseau, boy should be taught health education, philosophy and natural.  On the other hand, girl should be taught religious, traditional education (culinary skills). Girl should be obedient, humble, nurture the child.

He gives child primary importance and teacher is secondary. He says that knowledge and ideal should not be imposed. He thinks that teacher should be friendly, guide and as facilitator. Teacher treatment should be affectionately, lovely towards children. School should be located in natural atmosphere and away from society and city.

He believes that leave child free, child will become disciplined. He thinks that discipline should be internally by love, affection and sympathy. Discipline must not be external force. Child will learn by nature, what is good and bad. Children from 1-12 year, theoretical and oral knowledge is meaningful.

Loophole of Rousseau’s education:

i-                   Stereotype thinking against women education

ii-                 Against society

iii-               Against lecture method

iv-               Against bookish knowledge till 1-12 years.

ManishChand:INTELLIGENCE - ITS THEORIES AND MEASUREMENT WITH PEOPLE'S UNDERSTANDING

This paper is an effort towards understanding the adults’ perceptions of intelligence, an intelligent person and intelligent behavior and comparison with theories which are propounded by theorists. With the objective in view, first of all, I have taken the interview and collected their responses. The same questions were asked to all the participants. Questions are given along with appendix. The study participants were 10 college students and research scholars. Their ages ranged from 20 to 30 years. There was an even division of gender: 5 of the 10 students were boys, the other 5 students were girls who participated in this study for open -interview. 2 students from M.Phil , 3 students from MSW (1^st yr) , 1 students from DS(2^nd yr),1 student from DSA(2^nd yr), 2 students from MPH(2^nd yr), 1 student from DM out of 10. The students were confronted with three questions. Their reply was chosen after open-interview with the students of different-2 courses. They all spoke in English as their first language.  .They is following;

Intelligence	Intelligent person	Intelligent behavior
(A)-male.1-Perform  according to situation	Who can deal with sort of problems	Who is supportive always with interest& listen patiently
2- Conscience mind with practical experience	Who Takes rational decision	Who behave according to time and situation
3-Awareness of fact and surrounded things.	Person having full confident and act boldly.	Who does not underestimate others& respect equally.
4-Who is well educated & know theoretical knowledge	Smart person, who uses opportunity in his favor	Using appropriate knowledge at appropriate time.
5-Taking rational decision which helpful in your overall development	Who gives best suitable answer to my question	Acting on rational decision while anticipating on consequences.
(B)-female.6-who takes instance action & useful action	Who is capable to take useful decision	Who can mix up with everyone without hurting anyone.
7-Using presence of mind to solve the situation	Who reflects with experience to resolve the problem	Respecting equally with balancing& convincingly
8-Thinking right at the right moment.	Who make informal decision with logic	Who behaves according to situation in mature way.
9-Intervene with societal decision	who is able to make herself /himself understand a theory or situation etc, in own way,	To make a decision or an argument which is explaining our understanding at a present situation/time, something which you can do or argue 4 confidently according to our understanding
10-To make strategy or work according to the way that social situation is demanding	Who is wise and act consciously all time.	Who takes others in her/his confident and deals with them nicely.

Now, I will look at how theorists have given their definition of intelligence. And what they say about it. After that I will compare and make connection whether they are similar or difference.

According to Binet   “Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.”

Oxford Dictionary explains “Intelligence as the power ofperceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing.’’

According to Gardner and Hatch(1989:433)  ‘’Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture"   

Sternberg,( 1985 )” mental activity directed towardpurposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life” 

H.G. Wells defines ‘’It is general mental and behavioral adaptability to new problems and condition of life’’

Perkins (1995) “Intelligence is not only multiple but includes aspects of values and personality as well as cognitive skill.’’ 

According to Wechsler ‘’ Intelligence is global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with her/his environment.’’

Comparative study

Literally speaking, individual variations in definitions are common within and across all species. So this comparative study may not be exception one and cannot escape from that variations. If I first look at psychological notions of intelligence, find many similarities from the common people notion of intelligence. Except Gardner, above mentioned all the theorists’ ( Binet, Stern, Wells, Perkin, Wechsler and Oxford Dictionary) definitions seem to be quite at hand. If I compare one what Stern says ‘’ Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements’’ is giving to great extent same meaning as a student said ‘’ To make strategy or work according to the way that social situation is demanding.’’  By and large, what similarities I figured out in (Wells, Perkin, Wechsler, Binet. Oxford dictionary with adults’ definitions ) seem that both are saying intelligence in one respect is intended to a ability, to change maker, take decision at right time , capability to think rationally in course of time, to change the course of events and, in turn, change an unfavorable potential future into a more favorable actual one.

On the other hand, when dealing with the dissimilarities what exactly I find in Gardner's definition seems to be somewhat dissimilar.“Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” does not fit and suit anywhere with students’ lay definition of intelligence. In this respect, the work of Howard Gardner seems to be one of the most arguable since his multiple intelligence theory, being new, has already provoked numerous discussions as for its reliability. In fact, the Gardner’s definition (multiple theory of intelligence) emphasize that each kind of intelligence is closely related to a definite sphere of life or human activity and, in such a way, individuals with different kinds of intelligence dominating may be more or less successful in different fields respectively to their kinds of intelligence. But no single student talked that intelligence is ability which is built in cultural setting.

                                                      

Looking at critically and going into deep, intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. In fact, intelligence is ability, no doubt but evaluating intelligence is about more than merely determining whether it is right or wrong.  Even Sternberg has never made a final definition. For an example, Sternberg says “to my knowledge, every investigator who actually studies the behavior genetics of human intelligence believes that there is some role both for heredity and environment in intelligence.’’ But later he seems not to be stick with his own opinion that and gives controversial statement.  He says again “I personally am not enthusiastic about to attempts to assign percentages to heredity and environment because what percentages are assigned depend on so many factors including geographic, temporal, and educational point of view’’ page 14. So it has become ample clear that his definition of intelligence is different from adults and not universal.

It seems that, definition variability is a fact of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment), and individuals are no exception to this. Above definitions vary from one another, may be because of its geographical location (rural or urban), cultural, educational level, and gender and so on. They also may vary along with psychological dimensions. Their definitions may be considered as best or dull, reasonable, satisfactory, good enough or not good, etc. Therefore, one can maintain by saying that why not theorists and adults definitions may similar and differ from each other. The list of variations can be endless.  For an example, there is a reason to believe that vocabulary is good measure of intelligence because it measures directly children’s ability to acquire information in context and in can be seen through their writings.  As some psychologists claim “It is well known that vocabulary is one of the best predictors, if not the best single predictor; of overall IQ score (Jensen, 1980; Metarazzo, 1972)

I find that many psychologists have defined intelligence differently in the articles. One of the interesting argument in favor of the role played by inherited characteristics which is given by Vernon (1979). He points that “Children in most cases receive same similar environment, but their measured intelligence can differ by 10, 20 or 30 IQ points on the same tests. Genetically it is found that each child would draw a different combination of genes from his or her parents’’ pp. 99 .On the other hand if we see environmentally, it does not happen what we expect.  This genes carried by parents which do not affect their behavior but can become and appear dominant in children in form of hair and facial shape. 

During the middle Ages, it was believed that one’s social status was determined by one’s parentage. If you were born a noble, a noble you remained. If you were born a serf, so you remained. But during 21th century, it has changed and become clear that one’s ability is regarded by her/his achievement. Now, there is more cognitive abilities required for various kinds of school and job success than measured by IQ and related constructs (such as NET, SET, CAT, SAT, GMAT,). For an example it is proved by Ceci and Liker (1986) “Persons who are successful in making bets at the race track and who use highly complex mental algorithms are intelligent.”

Moving ahead, talking about intelligent behavior if I do compare psychologists’ with students above mentioned, who believe that our behaviors are influenced by our personal traits, on the contrary, some others hold the view that our behaviors are influenced more by situational factors. This latter view is known as situational context, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s behavior which may change into aggressive, or may behave in a submissive, respectful manner with others.  For an instance, all psychologists agree by saying “At the level of definition that intelligence behavior involves adaptation to the environments and might not apply as well in nonwestern ones (Cole, 1990; Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 1982).” 

 It means that individual intelligence behavior also differ one another. That is why I find that theorists & adults' understandings are quite different about intelligent behavior. According adults, intelligent behavior is something supportive, respect others view equally, behaves politely according to time. It appears that, intelligence provides an understanding of how people adapt their behavior according to the environment they live in. If we watch an intelligent person’s behavior, we are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships. To support my statement one psychologist saying may be helpful. Kamin (1974) claims “There is no credible evidence for any hereditary effects at all on intelligence behavior. The heritability of intelligence will depend, how intelligence is defined.’’

Conclusion

Finally, in light of my observation, what I understand as of now, that there could be no fix demarcation of intelligence. Intelligence answer depends on a number of factors, including how you define the construct compare to context. As Gardner (1983) who argues that “Intelligence is not one thing but many factor influences.” By and large I found some similarities which both (theorists& adults) are reinforcing that intelligence in one respect is intended to ability,  decision maker, to take rational decision and action at right time ,use of presence of mind(general ability) to change the course of events and, in turn, change an unfavorable potential future into a more favorable actual one.  On the other hand, theorists who defined intelligence as heredity and cultural built vary from adults’ definition. But theorists’ papers have enlightened, sensitized and strengthened my understanding on multi-factorial issues which are interwoven. Moreover, I cannot draw conclusions about individuals from sample because intelligence is not something that can be directly observed, like a person’s height or weight.  We can only infer its presence by watching people’s behavior. Eventually, to me, what I can assume as my understanding about those basic thrusts behind Intelligence that I have got, they are various factors that function such as heredity, socio-culture environment, educational level, geographical setting. These all aspect gets impinged in giving a shape to individual’s ability, behavior and perspectives in every walk of life. 

                                     REFERENCES

Robert J. Sternberg. Myth, Counter Myths and Truth about Intelligence

Moghaddam. F.M (2005) Great Ideas in Psychology, Cultural and Historical Introduction. Oxford   Publication.

Robert J. Sternberg. The Holy Grail of General Intelligence. Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000)

Gardner ,H. ( 1983) . Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York :

 Kamin,L.(1974) The Science and Politics of IQ. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jensen ,A.R. (1980).  Bias in Mental Testing. New York: Free Press.

Ceci , S.J.,& Liker,J. ( 1986). Academic and nonacademic intelligence: An experimental  separation. In R. J. Sternberg & R.J. Wagner (Eds.), Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origin of Competence in the Everyday World (pp. 119-142). New York: Cambridge University, Sapporo,japan.

Cole,M.(1990). Mind as a Cultural Achievement : Implications for IQ testing. Unpublished manuscript. Hokkaido University, Sapporo Japan.

NCERT text book. Variation Psychological Attributes.

‘Evaluating Intelligence’ by Kristan Wheaton,Mercyhurst College and Diane Chido,McManis and Monsalve Associates.

Clark, Robert M. (2004). Intelligence analysis :   A  Target –Centric Approach. CQ Press, Washington, DC.

Fonatana,D. (1988) . Psychology for Teachers. London;BPs Books.

And others article given on’ Creativity’ , ‘Intelligence.’

APPENDIX A-   Questions

1-     According to you, what will be a definition of intelligence?

2-     Whom will you consider as a intelligent person?

3-       What is intelligent behavior?

ManishChand:THE NEED FOR MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION AND ITS ROLE

Through this paper I aim to develop an understanding about the need for multilingual education and its role in Indian context. I will first discuss background to discuss multilingual education and the work of few linguists/theorists who have worked on language proficiency and cognitive development I will try to explain on how teaching-learning can happen effectively in the multilingual classroom and how teaching model should be used actively to impart awareness about student’s linguistic resource. In the later part, i will deal with the role of multilingual education in the case of Indian classroom.

Literally, multilingual education uses more than one language as the media of instruction. The teacher develops English skills and teaches content in the native language. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles and instructional needs of students.

Most definitions of multilingual involve the competence of the individual. For example, some linguists, like Bloomfield (1933), says that the term should be applied only to those individuals who possess "native-like" ability in both languages, while others (e.g. Haugen, 1956) take the opposite view that,’ multilingual/bilingual should be characterized by minimal rather than maximal qualifications.’’ Weinreich (1953, p. 1) takes a more neutral position in defining multilingual/bilingual as the "practice of alter- natively using two languages." According to Hornby( 1977, p. 3) ‘’The best way to deal with this variation would seem to be to recognize that bilingualism is not an all or none property, but is an individual characteristic that may exist to degrees varying from minimal competence to complete mastery of more than one language .’’

If we notice, the framework of BICS and CALP by Cummins bilingualism can be seen as boon to Indian classrooms. It was earlier believed that bilingualism has a negative relationship and creates hurdles in cognitive development and scholastic achievement (Jesperson 1922; Saer 1923). Several studies have shown that there is highly positive relationship between bilingualism, cognitive flexibility and scholastic achievements.(Peal and Lambert 1962; Gardner and Lambert 1972; Cummins and Swain 1986). Even recent study, the language paper in National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) quotes various researches that provide us with the evidences to prove that ‘’Bilingual children not only have control over several different languages but are also academically more creative and socially more tolerant. The wide ranges of linguistic repertoire that bilingual children control equips them to negotiate different social situations more efficiently and are found to excel in divergent thinking."

Multilingual education under this approach goes one step further than the previous approach and is also intended to make pupils from ethnic/cultural groups competent in two language through bilingual pedagogical approach. According to Banks (1988), multilinguality should not be limited to pupils from diverse background/ethnic groups, but all teachers should at least have multilingual competence and preferably be cross-culturally competent which will highly helpful in teaching process.

Multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, linguistic pluralism, an ideology of language diversity, which celebrates the differences among groups of people. Teaching pedagogy can be suitable place for utilizing the multiplicity of languages available in a classroom. Linguistic pluralism not only assumes that minorities and ethnic groups have rights, but that their life-styles are legitimate and desirable ways of participating in society . As suggested by Agnihotri R.K.(1995) ‘’Multilingualism is an assets can be used as a resource, a teaching strategy, and a goal; that the analysis of subaltern discourses has already brought out the significance of the contribution of the underprivileged in history and such sites need to be invoked in day today teaching in the classroom.’’ He father rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

Another indicator of effective communication of content in the multilingual classrooms could be when children read aloud. In a traditional school, "reading" in the lower grades often consisted of repeating aloud what the teacher read from the board or text. In most cases, pupils were not even looking at the words they were "reading." In one second grade, for example, there were only eight books for thirty pupils, so that most were repeating the words of the "reading" lesson without even seeing them once.

Multilingual education is one that enables formal instruction or learning to take place in two languages that are potentially viable means of communication, instruction, and learning. Bilingual education consists of giving the child a part of his or her primary education in the mother tongue, or the dominant local language, if practicable, and then using English as the medium of instruction for subsequent education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Indian context, there are two languages in contact (English and Hindi) are both well developed medium of instruction, learning, and communication, and opportunities and facilities exist for a balanced bilingual education, which implies the same degree of effectiveness in the use of both English and Hindi for educational and other purposes.

Many parents fear, that learning in two or three languages at a time is very difficult for the children. But in fact this is not an issue. When child centered, interactive methods are used constantly, every child can acquire two or three languages on a high level of competency, without even noticing, how this happens. From the psychological point of view it is not more difficult for children in a multilingual class than in mother tongue education and a lot easier than in a class with a foreign language of instruction only. Therefore multilingual education helps both the linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children.

In multilingual education part of the subjects are taught in the mother tongue, the others in the second and third language. In this way one can first of all guarantee the even development of the mother tongue. The child can learn to read, write and express complex thoughts in the mother tongue. At the same time pupils feel comfortable in the lessons, which are taught in the language they are already familiar with, because they understand what is being asked of them. Similar experience as i had in our course contact programme. They can experience their abilities, which develop in them a feeling of self-confidence. This self-confidence helps the children to boldly tackle learning also in the subjects, which are taught in the second and third language. Knowing that they are not stupid, students can learn with curiosity and effort. For the children whose second language is English, develops much quicker than in the monolingual (Hindi or languages).

It is important, that certain principles are kept in the multilingual classroom. The most important of these principles is that the teachers work without translation, in order for the children to hear coherent texts in both the mother tongue and the second language. If the principles of multilingual education are followed, children not only develop language skills in two or more languages, but also, surprisingly, show a linguistic development above the norm. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that these children acquire two linguistic systems in a parallel way and thus develop two or three times more scope. Therefore they become more creative and inventive in problem-solving. In addition to that these people can learn mother tongue, second language norm and acquire any other foreign language in their adult life much easier.

The organization of the educational process according to multilingual education, give every child access to mother tongue education, which is so crucial for its general development. In this way all pupils can develop their full intellectual potential and at the same time receive all necessary linguistic skills in the other languages crucial for them. By reorganizing schooling from the traditional divided system to multilingual education, the schools can even distribute the children among the classes and solve the problem of overfilled language.

Moving ahead, the role of a bilingual education, instruction and research that can lead to the development of receptive language arts (listening and reading skills) should be actively promoted in the two languages, for a number of reasons: (i) The two language skills provide an essential gateway to learning, in first or second language situations, and also facilitate the transfer of learning from one situation to another. (ii) Bilingual presupposes the achievement of a reasonable measure of linguistic and communicative competence in the two target languages, and one sure way to achieve. It is by systematically, developing, listening and reading skills in both languages. (iii) If the achievement of balanced multilingualism, as defined earlier, is the ideal, then every effort must be made to develop the bilingual person's "knowledge of and insight into the nature of language" (Lefevre, 1970, p. 337), and receptive skills in the two languages, either con- currently or at different stages.

The another important role of multilingual education is, apart from the acquisition of two or more languages, the children are confronted with representatives of various ethnic and linguistic groups in everyday life and schools, which develop in them excellent intercultural skills and tolerance, and which supports the development of a peaceful civil society in the multilingual and multi diverse background country like India. It become more important when in classes interactive teaching methods are used which enable the children to learn actively, enable the teachers to determine the needs of each child, and uses communication in the target languages as the basic method for learning languages and content. Since in multilingual classes each child receives education in its mother tongue and in the foreign language, the classes can be ethnically and linguistically mixed, depending on the needs and possibilities of each region. With multilingual education the parents’ dilemma while choosing the language of instruction for their children, is resolved and at the same time the problem of overfilled English classes is diffused. The model of multilingual education also alleviates the lack of teachers, able to teach in English.

There are some certain demands that multilingual educations requires.

· Increasing use of local language in schools

· Building a foundation of child-centered learning approaches

· Enabling more local language speakers to become teachers

· Making materials available in local languages

·  Promoting participatory democracy and effort to sustain and enhance the degree of multilingualism and metalinguistic awareness that children have

· Early education in mother tongue promotes language development and pre-literacy skills

To become acquainted with each other's language, cultures, learn to appreciate them, and learn how to relate to each other .

Conclusion

Therefore, in the light of my observation, from above explanation, it is confirmed that multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, which denotes linguistic pluralism, and diversity, language proficiency, scholastic achievement, cognitive flexibility, and social tolerance.. It also celebrates the differences among groups of people and gives due respect to one another language preparing students to become global citizens in a multicultural, multilingual world, by providing the opportunity for all. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles in classroom and instructional needs of students. Multilingual education helps both in linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children. In multilingual classroom, teaching will become interactive if the teacher uses classroom as resource in terms of language. And such classroom, if children’s mother tongue get due regard, they will learn quickly and participate actively and confidently. That is why, Agnihotri rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

REFERENCES

Multilingual conferencing: effective teaching of children from refugee and asylum-seeking families® Geri Smyth,University of Strathclyde, UK,.Published by: Sage

Agnihotri, R. K. (1995). Multilingualism as a classroom resource. In K. Heugh, A. Sieruhn, &

P. Pluddemann (Eds.), Multilingual education for South Africa (pp. 3–7). Johannesburg,

Germany: Heinmann..

Bilingual Education in a Multilingual School System: Nigeria Author(s): Solomon Unoh Source: Journal of 
Reading, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Nov., 1985), pp. 124-130 Published by: International Reading Association.

Bloomfield, L. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1933.

Hornby, P.A. Bilingualism: psychological, social and educational implications. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

Haugen, E. Bilingualism in the Americas: a bibliography and a research guide. Mont- gomery: University of Alabama Press, 1956.

Weinreich, U. Languages in contact. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953.

Baker, Colin. 1996. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon,

England: Multilingual Matters.

Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education by Jasone Cenoz ; Fred Genesee Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2 (Summer, 2001), pp. 331-332 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Bilingual Education Success, but Policy Failure Author(s): Nancy H. Hornberger Source: Language in Society, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Jun., 1987), pp. 205-226 Published by: Cambridge University Press.

Approaches to Multicultural Education in the United States: Some Concepts and Assumptions Author(s): Margaret Alison Gibson Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 1, Special .
Anniversary Issue: Highlights from the Past (Spring, 1984), pp. 94-120 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Does Negotiation of Meaning Promote Reading Comprehension? A Study of Multilingual Primary School Classes Author(s): Kris Van den Branden Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jul. - Aug. - Sep., 2000), pp. 426-443 Published by: International Reading Association.

Teacher Collaboration and talk in multilingual classrooms

Creese, A. Multilingual Matters Ltd: Clevedon, 2005. 217pp. Pbk £24.95.

ISBN: 1-85359-821-6

Author(s): Irma Blanco Casey Reviewed work(s): Language and Education in Multilingual Settings by
Bernard Spolsky Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 343-344 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Interviewing in a Multicultural/Multilingual Setting Author(s): Tara Goldstein Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 3, Qualitative Research in ESOL (Autumn, 1995), pp. 587 -593 Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL).

Who's the Boss? How Communicative Competence Is Defined in a Multilingual Preschool Classroom Author(s): Min-Ling Tsai and Georgia Earnest Garcia Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 230-252 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Sustaining Linguistic Diversity within the Global Cultural Economy: Issues of Language Rights and Linguistic Possibilities Author(s): Naz Rassool Source: Comparative Education, Vol. 40, No. 2, Special Issue (28): Postcolonialism and Comparative Education (May, 2004), pp. 199-214 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Multilingual Reading Theory Author(s): Jill Fitzgerald Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 2003), pp. 118-122 Published by: International Reading Association.

Identity Constructions in Multilingual Advertising Author(s): Ingrid Piller Source: Language in Society, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 2001), pp. 153-186 Published by: Cambridge University Press.

Multilingual Interviewing in Israel Author(s): Haim Blanc Source: The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 2, Of Sociology and the Interview (Sep., 1956), pp. 205-209 Published by: The University of Chicago Press.
Bilingual Education and English-Only: A Language-Planning Framework Author(s): Nancy H. Hornberger Source: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 508, English Plus: Issues in Bilingual Education (Mar., 1990), pp. 12-26 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism: Views from a Community in France Author(s): Wallace E. Lambert, Fathali M. Moghaddam, Jean Sorin, Simone Sorin Source: Sociological Forum, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Sep., 1990), pp. 387-411 Published by: Springer.

Diversity and Multicultural Pedagogy , An Analysis of Attitude and Practices, ,within an American Pacific Island University, Kirk Johnson and Yukiko Inoue,University of Guam.USA.Published by” Sage.