ManishChand:THE NEED FOR MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION AND ITS ROLE

Through this paper I aim to develop an understanding about the need for multilingual education and its role in Indian context. I will first discuss background to discuss multilingual education and the work of few linguists/theorists who have worked on language proficiency and cognitive development I will try to explain on how teaching-learning can happen effectively in the multilingual classroom and how teaching model should be used actively to impart awareness about student’s linguistic resource. In the later part, i will deal with the role of multilingual education in the case of Indian classroom.

Literally, multilingual education uses more than one language as the media of instruction. The teacher develops English skills and teaches content in the native language. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles and instructional needs of students.

Most definitions of multilingual involve the competence of the individual. For example, some linguists, like Bloomfield (1933), says that the term should be applied only to those individuals who possess "native-like" ability in both languages, while others (e.g. Haugen, 1956) take the opposite view that,’ multilingual/bilingual should be characterized by minimal rather than maximal qualifications.’’ Weinreich (1953, p. 1) takes a more neutral position in defining multilingual/bilingual as the "practice of alter- natively using two languages." According to Hornby( 1977, p. 3) ‘’The best way to deal with this variation would seem to be to recognize that bilingualism is not an all or none property, but is an individual characteristic that may exist to degrees varying from minimal competence to complete mastery of more than one language .’’

If we notice, the framework of BICS and CALP by Cummins bilingualism can be seen as boon to Indian classrooms. It was earlier believed that bilingualism has a negative relationship and creates hurdles in cognitive development and scholastic achievement (Jesperson 1922; Saer 1923). Several studies have shown that there is highly positive relationship between bilingualism, cognitive flexibility and scholastic achievements.(Peal and Lambert 1962; Gardner and Lambert 1972; Cummins and Swain 1986). Even recent study, the language paper in National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) quotes various researches that provide us with the evidences to prove that ‘’Bilingual children not only have control over several different languages but are also academically more creative and socially more tolerant. The wide ranges of linguistic repertoire that bilingual children control equips them to negotiate different social situations more efficiently and are found to excel in divergent thinking."

Multilingual education under this approach goes one step further than the previous approach and is also intended to make pupils from ethnic/cultural groups competent in two language through bilingual pedagogical approach. According to Banks (1988), multilinguality should not be limited to pupils from diverse background/ethnic groups, but all teachers should at least have multilingual competence and preferably be cross-culturally competent which will highly helpful in teaching process.

Multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, linguistic pluralism, an ideology of language diversity, which celebrates the differences among groups of people. Teaching pedagogy can be suitable place for utilizing the multiplicity of languages available in a classroom. Linguistic pluralism not only assumes that minorities and ethnic groups have rights, but that their life-styles are legitimate and desirable ways of participating in society . As suggested by Agnihotri R.K.(1995) ‘’Multilingualism is an assets can be used as a resource, a teaching strategy, and a goal; that the analysis of subaltern discourses has already brought out the significance of the contribution of the underprivileged in history and such sites need to be invoked in day today teaching in the classroom.’’ He father rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

Another indicator of effective communication of content in the multilingual classrooms could be when children read aloud. In a traditional school, "reading" in the lower grades often consisted of repeating aloud what the teacher read from the board or text. In most cases, pupils were not even looking at the words they were "reading." In one second grade, for example, there were only eight books for thirty pupils, so that most were repeating the words of the "reading" lesson without even seeing them once.

Multilingual education is one that enables formal instruction or learning to take place in two languages that are potentially viable means of communication, instruction, and learning. Bilingual education consists of giving the child a part of his or her primary education in the mother tongue, or the dominant local language, if practicable, and then using English as the medium of instruction for subsequent education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Indian context, there are two languages in contact (English and Hindi) are both well developed medium of instruction, learning, and communication, and opportunities and facilities exist for a balanced bilingual education, which implies the same degree of effectiveness in the use of both English and Hindi for educational and other purposes.

Many parents fear, that learning in two or three languages at a time is very difficult for the children. But in fact this is not an issue. When child centered, interactive methods are used constantly, every child can acquire two or three languages on a high level of competency, without even noticing, how this happens. From the psychological point of view it is not more difficult for children in a multilingual class than in mother tongue education and a lot easier than in a class with a foreign language of instruction only. Therefore multilingual education helps both the linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children.

In multilingual education part of the subjects are taught in the mother tongue, the others in the second and third language. In this way one can first of all guarantee the even development of the mother tongue. The child can learn to read, write and express complex thoughts in the mother tongue. At the same time pupils feel comfortable in the lessons, which are taught in the language they are already familiar with, because they understand what is being asked of them. Similar experience as i had in our course contact programme. They can experience their abilities, which develop in them a feeling of self-confidence. This self-confidence helps the children to boldly tackle learning also in the subjects, which are taught in the second and third language. Knowing that they are not stupid, students can learn with curiosity and effort. For the children whose second language is English, develops much quicker than in the monolingual (Hindi or languages).

It is important, that certain principles are kept in the multilingual classroom. The most important of these principles is that the teachers work without translation, in order for the children to hear coherent texts in both the mother tongue and the second language. If the principles of multilingual education are followed, children not only develop language skills in two or more languages, but also, surprisingly, show a linguistic development above the norm. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that these children acquire two linguistic systems in a parallel way and thus develop two or three times more scope. Therefore they become more creative and inventive in problem-solving. In addition to that these people can learn mother tongue, second language norm and acquire any other foreign language in their adult life much easier.

The organization of the educational process according to multilingual education, give every child access to mother tongue education, which is so crucial for its general development. In this way all pupils can develop their full intellectual potential and at the same time receive all necessary linguistic skills in the other languages crucial for them. By reorganizing schooling from the traditional divided system to multilingual education, the schools can even distribute the children among the classes and solve the problem of overfilled language.

Moving ahead, the role of a bilingual education, instruction and research that can lead to the development of receptive language arts (listening and reading skills) should be actively promoted in the two languages, for a number of reasons: (i) The two language skills provide an essential gateway to learning, in first or second language situations, and also facilitate the transfer of learning from one situation to another. (ii) Bilingual presupposes the achievement of a reasonable measure of linguistic and communicative competence in the two target languages, and one sure way to achieve. It is by systematically, developing, listening and reading skills in both languages. (iii) If the achievement of balanced multilingualism, as defined earlier, is the ideal, then every effort must be made to develop the bilingual person's "knowledge of and insight into the nature of language" (Lefevre, 1970, p. 337), and receptive skills in the two languages, either con- currently or at different stages.

The another important role of multilingual education is, apart from the acquisition of two or more languages, the children are confronted with representatives of various ethnic and linguistic groups in everyday life and schools, which develop in them excellent intercultural skills and tolerance, and which supports the development of a peaceful civil society in the multilingual and multi diverse background country like India. It become more important when in classes interactive teaching methods are used which enable the children to learn actively, enable the teachers to determine the needs of each child, and uses communication in the target languages as the basic method for learning languages and content. Since in multilingual classes each child receives education in its mother tongue and in the foreign language, the classes can be ethnically and linguistically mixed, depending on the needs and possibilities of each region. With multilingual education the parents’ dilemma while choosing the language of instruction for their children, is resolved and at the same time the problem of overfilled English classes is diffused. The model of multilingual education also alleviates the lack of teachers, able to teach in English.

There are some certain demands that multilingual educations requires.

· Increasing use of local language in schools

· Building a foundation of child-centered learning approaches

· Enabling more local language speakers to become teachers

· Making materials available in local languages

·  Promoting participatory democracy and effort to sustain and enhance the degree of multilingualism and metalinguistic awareness that children have

· Early education in mother tongue promotes language development and pre-literacy skills

To become acquainted with each other's language, cultures, learn to appreciate them, and learn how to relate to each other .

Conclusion

Therefore, in the light of my observation, from above explanation, it is confirmed that multilinguality is a cornerstone in education, which denotes linguistic pluralism, and diversity, language proficiency, scholastic achievement, cognitive flexibility, and social tolerance.. It also celebrates the differences among groups of people and gives due respect to one another language preparing students to become global citizens in a multicultural, multilingual world, by providing the opportunity for all. Multilingual education is one means of addressing the unique learning styles in classroom and instructional needs of students. Multilingual education helps both in linguistic development as well as the cognitive and creative development of the children. In multilingual classroom, teaching will become interactive if the teacher uses classroom as resource in terms of language. And such classroom, if children’s mother tongue get due regard, they will learn quickly and participate actively and confidently. That is why, Agnihotri rejects the concept of ‘‘a language’’ because devoid of multilinguality, the concept of one language will start dominating and exploiting other marginalized, subordinated languages.

REFERENCES

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Bilingual Education in a Multilingual School System: Nigeria Author(s): Solomon Unoh Source: Journal of 
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Hornby, P.A. Bilingualism: psychological, social and educational implications. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

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Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education by Jasone Cenoz ; Fred Genesee Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2 (Summer, 2001), pp. 331-332 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Bilingual Education Success, but Policy Failure Author(s): Nancy H. Hornberger Source: Language in Society, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Jun., 1987), pp. 205-226 Published by: Cambridge University Press.

Approaches to Multicultural Education in the United States: Some Concepts and Assumptions Author(s): Margaret Alison Gibson Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 1, Special .
Anniversary Issue: Highlights from the Past (Spring, 1984), pp. 94-120 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Does Negotiation of Meaning Promote Reading Comprehension? A Study of Multilingual Primary School Classes Author(s): Kris Van den Branden Source: Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jul. - Aug. - Sep., 2000), pp. 426-443 Published by: International Reading Association.

Teacher Collaboration and talk in multilingual classrooms

Creese, A. Multilingual Matters Ltd: Clevedon, 2005. 217pp. Pbk £24.95.

ISBN: 1-85359-821-6

Author(s): Irma Blanco Casey Reviewed work(s): Language and Education in Multilingual Settings by
Bernard Spolsky Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 343-344 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.

Interviewing in a Multicultural/Multilingual Setting Author(s): Tara Goldstein Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 3, Qualitative Research in ESOL (Autumn, 1995), pp. 587 -593 Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL).

Who's the Boss? How Communicative Competence Is Defined in a Multilingual Preschool Classroom Author(s): Min-Ling Tsai and Georgia Earnest Garcia Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 230-252 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association.

Sustaining Linguistic Diversity within the Global Cultural Economy: Issues of Language Rights and Linguistic Possibilities Author(s): Naz Rassool Source: Comparative Education, Vol. 40, No. 2, Special Issue (28): Postcolonialism and Comparative Education (May, 2004), pp. 199-214 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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Diversity and Multicultural Pedagogy , An Analysis of Attitude and Practices, ,within an American Pacific Island University, Kirk Johnson and Yukiko Inoue,University of Guam.USA.Published by” Sage.

ManishChand:BOOK REVIEW ON TEACHERS' WORK

The editor of the book, R.W. Connell is Professor of Sociology at Macquarie University and one of Australia’s leading social theorists, has to be congratulated on having achieved publication of such a masterpiece. This book is an outcome of a research project (described in the earlier book, ‘Making the Difference’ undertaken with D.J. Ashenden, S. Kessler and G.W. Dowsett). His noteworthy works include; Which Is Up?( 1983), Making the Difference( 1982), The Child’s Construction of Politics(1971) etc.

I have decided to choose this book because it is related to my interest and career. I love teaching and doing it. I want to be a value based teacher because I love being with people, working with and sharing what I have as of now. I found exactly right this book which enlighten, sensitized, moved my heart and strengthen my understanding giving realistic and vivid portrayal of Teachers’ lives, classroom and staffrooms providing an absorbing description of the life and work of teachers.

This book is divided into three parts including various sections. First Part of the chapter deals with teachers’ lives. As the author has taken interview with many teachers and found different perspectives and attitude towards their teaching job. This whole part is devoted to teachers’ lives. As we can see different-2 teachers,. Margrel Blackall is a teacher who comes from a working class background. For her,’’ School is different world, that’s all. We didn’t have books at home. I didn’t join a library until I was 14’’ (p.14) and for Terry, he is a also technical teacher of working class background. “I look on teaching as my bread and butter. It is not a ministry” (pp. 36). On the contrary, Angus a elite school grammar teacher” So I came over here, I have not got something going here if you were interested. And seeing as the he offered me more money-not that that was any inducement (laugh)-so I came. And I would think that one of the good aspects of the state system is that it does provide for mobility.” (p.40)

It seems that the concept of school varies person to person and it depends upon to socio-cultural, economical background. Money matters for everyone .Although the role of teachers in elementary school in Indian context are viewed negative performance and image as Poonam Batra (2005) rightly pointed out “for the last two decades the school teacher as a former centre piece of progress of social change is reduced to a mere object of educational reform or worse a passive agent of the prevailing ideology of the modern state’’

The Part Two, ‘Teachers’ Work’ , it deals with an industrial sociology of teachers that concerns the workplace, the labor process and division of labour, the curriculum, relationship with kids, and the school as a workplace. This book emphasizes teachers’ labor process as a point of departure for a wide range of problems. Teachers’ work can be understood as a particular labor process and as governed by a particular division of labor. The division of labor segregated in the schools according to the different contents of learning, the age of the student and difficulty of the content (subject), and complex set of rule of time table. We can see
“Rosa Marshall noted how as a new member of staff, she got’ all bottom class’. This is common and even in Indian education system. Another teacher, “Alan Watson teaches the year 12 lower stream in his boy’s private school because the upper stream is monopolized by a teacher who has been there since 1944, and is an expert on exam techniques.” (p.82)

Apart from teaching segregation of labor, the sexual division of labor is one of the most conspicuous issues about the teaching workforce which is operating between sectors of education as well as within schools. We can notice in the textbook as Rosa Marshall mentions that “in the state school, all the subject heads, and the principal, were men. Even at St Margaret’s College, a school for girls, only the mathematics teachers were all men. She finds that it has now changed to some extent. Though the head of the science department is still a man and there are no men at all in English and social sciences department.” (p.83)

In same Part Two, The Curriculum’ is a definition of the pupils’ learning, and also a definition of the teachers’ work. The way it is organized and the social practices that surround it, have profound consequences for teachers. We can see “the first is a direct consequence of the hegemony of the competitive academic curriculum. Marginalized curricula can gain space, status and resources in the schools by redefining themselves as part of the hegemonic curriculum. The process is like the ‘Sanskritisation’ of upwardly mobile caste in India. To register their arrival and claim prestige, they adopt more and more Brahmin social custom and religious observances.” (p.98)
It is clear from the above explanation that relations of class, culture and gender are embedded in the curriculum. It follows that reform of curriculum itself, in some measure, a reconstitution of these structures. Likely Apple has showed that ‘’the role of school in selecting, preserving, and passing on conceptions if competence, ideological norms, and values (and often only certain social groups ‘knowledge’)-all of which are embedded within both the overt and hidden curricula in schools’’ (p. 58)

In same Part Two, ’Relationship with Kids’, it points out about teachers relation with kids is crucial for overall development of children. And discipline is considered as guarantee to the parents that the kids will not get into trouble. Discipline is also important theme in the public image of private schooling. Parents say giving example that he /she studies in private school it means, children will be civilized and will become something after coming out from the school. Discipline will not be barrier in way of teaching if teachers are having professional teaching pedagogy. A professional teacher focuses on subject content and innovative methods (how to plan a lesson and how to make learning as fun using by innovative activities and plays). If teachers are well equipped of these professional skills then problems would not occur what Shulman (2004) says ‘’ What makes teaching impossible (is) within the classrooms, the teacher is constantly torn among competing and incompatible pedagogical demands’’

In same Part Two ‘The School as a Workplace’ generally parents think that social control in schools is come under in terms of teachers’ control of the students. On the contrary, all most workers, even teachers themselves are subjects to be a system of supervision. “Close supervision causes resentment among them. And close supervision also contradicts the ideology of professionalism which education authorities often want to encourage among teachers for other reasons. This notion has been an effective weapon in campaigns by teachers unions against management control.” It seems that under supervision, teachers now have become robot just like artificial electronic device. It would be better if I say in words of Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves ‘‘teachers must be appreciated and understood in terms of their purpose ,as people, and in terms of their work context-as ‘total teachers’. Teachers in other words, should not be seen as mere technicians, ‘delivering’ a national curriculum or anything else’’ (p.58)

In same Part Two ‘The School as a Workplace’, under the subtitle ‘The Gender Regime’ even gender relations inside a school are of course interwoven and schools mark out gender division for their pupils. We can visualize such as in the textbook “uniforms (skirts and blouses vs slacks and shirts), sports (netball vs football), forms of address (Yes, Miss), curriculum tracks and electives (typing vs technical drawing) and so on’’ (p.139). Even monitors of the class often are selected to boys so that they can control the class in absence of teacher. I am reminded of Rubina Saigol’s paper, also regarding the same critically examines how the civics text describes ‘’The portrayal of women and men in sex bound roles confirms the patriarchal notion that men are the legitimate, inside real actors in the social arena: women are the unworthy outsiders.” (p.138)
The best example i can offer from Nandini Battacharjee’s paper ‘’ our teacher tells the monitor, you are a girl and you can’t keep the class quiet. See Gagan.( Raju,10;4b) ‘’ Still, these practices are in existence and seem operating quite similar in Indian context. It is seen that girls are told to opt for easy and soft subjects as optional course because of people stereotype thinking towards women.
Similarly, we can also see good example as AnnMarie Wolpe examines in her paper critically some of the conventional approaches which explain different achievement between the both sexes. “Woman’s ambition is tied to her role in marriage and to the goals directly related to marriage, whereas man’s ambition is linked to his occupation and as such of a material nature.” (p. 297)

Last, Part Third is devoted to being a teacher, teachers’ outlook, and teachers’ politics and power.
‘Being a Teacher’, the major goal of each teacher should be the development of their students in accordance to the basic demands of the modern world as independent, intellectual, social, and responsible citizens. The basic goals of education and teaching in particular, may be achieved in different ways and in this respect, the effectiveness of teaching depends on a type of a teacher which may vary dramatically being feminity and masculinity. John Welton, a conservative teacher in a conservative boys’ school, seems a model of patriarchal attitudes, strong on discipline and regimentation, affirm supporter of the cadets. When he is asked what do if he were principal, after stressing academic work, he goes on: “The second thing would be to have a very strong cultural school………………..and I think the schools have a part to play here, by showing sensitive and civilized behavior that this sort of thing is abhorrent.” (p.157)

Now, we can find out easily how a teacher’s work is considered and she/he is given order by senior officer/ principal in schools. Teachers have no autonomy to take decision and freedom to teach their own way. ‘’Deputy Headmistress of St. Margaret’s College and a social science teacher of twenty years experience is of view that helping children to learn is deceptive simple proposition. She suggests and points out to teachers “you have to like kids, and be prepared to explain things over and over’’ page 69. Here, I am reminded of Shuman’s(, Autonomy and Obligation ,2004) paper talks “The choices are severely constrained by decision made outside the individual classroom, e.g., the assignment of pupils to schools and of pupils-within schools to classrooms, the section of text book series….with an increased emphasis on controls from above, on the remote control of teaching via policies’’

In the Third Part,’ Teachers’ Outlooks’ it deals four types of outlooks that teachers’ have towards students. The first is a set of terms that have to do with their success at formal learning: academically ‘good’ or ‘weak’ or ‘poor’, ‘average’ ‘middling’. The same teachers’ outlook towards Black students we can find also in C. Wright mentions in his paper conversation between Black students and White teacher; Paul says (black student) “I am not saying that we cause trouble, but I am just saying the teachers think black boys are always going causing trouble. That is what they think.” (pp.109-125)‘’ The second set of concepts, one is ‘a trier’, another is ‘slack’; one is a hard worker’, another ‘will not work’ at all. We can see as Mary Coleman neatly rings the changes on the two axes, speaking of working-class kids who are not being selected by the school: “ I think you can divide them into two categories: those that can work and won’t, and those that can’t work and won’t.” (p.169)The third set of concepts is ‘quiet’ vs ‘noisy’; cheeky’ ‘behavior problem’, ‘trouble maker’. Hell in the classroom and ‘normal easy-going kids’. The fourth set of concepts is, ‘personality clash, disorganized’, ‘manly little bloke’ and a ‘mouse emerging. This all classification comes under’ “Labelling’ Approachas as discussed by Sarup’s The Importance of Classroom Studies (pp.68-80) and also explained by Ray C. Rist’s On Understanding the process of Schooling : The Contributions of Labeling Theory (pp.292-303). They have unraveled in their paper how students are decoded and given certain title by their respective teachers on the premises of students’ performance and background.

In Third Part, under subtitle ‘Images of Teaching’ it deals that an important element in Teachers’ thinking about teaching is belief that it is a socially responsible, and dignified job. For”Margaret it is clear that the dignity of teaching is very much bound with the ability to teach your subject properly, that is with the academic curriculum.” (p.173) but we find opposite that the teacher who had the Guru image (Kale, 1970) in the society, can no longer image analogous reverence. The teacher is viewed as an instrument of imparting of whatever is decided by the system. Leaving apart what is to be taught, her/his voice has no representation even in how teach and assess the children. This is the worst problem our teachers especially the elementary school teachers are facing.

In Third Part ‘Teachers’ Politics and Power’ is a discussion of teachers as a social group and as a force in educational politics. Teachers are divided among themselves by the institutional arrangement of the education system. The big issue on which a progressive or conservative division opens up is discipline. The staff of Greenway High is spilt on this as Len Johnson reports;
“You get interpretations of rules. I look at the spirit of what is being done and I do not really care if the kids-in what way they are doing it, and I tend to bend all the time, just so long as I can see the kids are genuine and not mucking around……………………………….There is such a diversity of opinion on discipline.” (p.165)

Conclusion
Thus, taking into account, all above mentioned, it is possible to conclude by saying that teachers play an extremely important role in the process of education. Connell has explored the role of teachers as a social responsible group involved in educational reform; their social and political ideas; the divisions among them; and how their interests may be served or damaged in attempting to change highly unequal education systems at large The book’s main objective is to contribute to a difficult but strategic debate about social inequality and the future of public schooling. This book has become relevant in helping and developing my understanding of these processes in certain ways: teachers ‘lives, an absorbing description of the life, Teachers’ work, teachers’ world. These lessons should be viewed as an essential experience that provides opportunities for the further professional growth of those who are involved in teaching or want to become a good teacher. I can say only this that teacher’s work can never end. From the role of everyday teaching process to managerial to the role as a member of the society, teachers play various roles to ensure that the education system and the society as a whole move along side by side. In actuality, they can define the outcome of the teaching process and it is their responsibility to provide possibly more efficient development of students. As the analysis of the lessons discussed above has shown there are different types of teachers among which democratic one is the most effective one. At the same time, to achieve positive results in teaching it is necessary to provide harmonic development of students, including not only their intellectual but also aesthetic and social skills.

REFERENCES
.
Classroom and lecture notes during contact period
Sarup,M (1978). Marxism and Education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Wright C.(1987)Black Students-White teachers, in Tryona,B.(Ed.). (1987). Racial Inequality in education, London: tavistock Publications
Nandini Bhattacharjee; Through the Looking Glass: Gender Socialization in a Primary School, Published in Sarswati.T.S(ed).( 1999). Culture, Socialization and Human Development Theory, Research and Applications in India New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Kohn, A and Wolpe A. (1978). Feminism and Materialism: Women and Modes of Production, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves ; The Teacher as a Person ,pub. in Teaching and Learning in the Primary School (ed.) Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne, first Indian reprint 2005,Routledge.falmer in association with the Open University.
Batra,Poonam (2005): ‘’ Voice and Agency of Teachers-Missing Link in National Curriculum Framework 2005’’ EPW,October 1-7,No.4(1986),pp.4347-4356.
Hargreaves, Andy (1996): ‘’ Guit-exploring the Emotions of Teaching’’ in Changing Teachers, Changing Times- Teachers’ Work and Culture in the Postmodern Age, Cassell, Reprinted 1996.
Lee S. Shulman (ed.) (2004) Autonomy and Obligation: the Remote Control of Teaching,Chapter 4,The Wisdom of Practice,Jossy Bass,pp.133-161.
Kale, Pratima (1970) The Guru and the Professional- the Dilemma of the Secondary School Teacher in Poona, India’’ Comparative Education Review, Vol.14,No.3,(Oct.,1970),pp.,371-376
Michael and Andy Hargreaves, The Teacher as a Person in Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne (ed.). Teaching and Learning in Primary School, Routledge Falmer,(pp.67-72.)
Lee Shulman ,Those Who Understand Knowledge Growth in Teaching, in Andrew Pollard and Jill Bourne (ed.) Teaching and Learning in Primary School,Routledge Falmer,pp.84-88.
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ManishChand: HAPPY TEACHERS' DAY

While every teacher ensures that he/she proves to be the best instructor for his/her students, the choice of that 'special teacher' becomes subjective. For students, their special teacher is the one, who cares for them, understands their limitations and of course, teaches well. Since teachers are bestowed with the responsibility of nourishing their students, to make them become a better person, a responsible citizen and an ideal son/daughter, the happiness of achieving a distinction is not just limited to the students, but also to the teachers, who prepare them for the merit. At kindergarten, teacher becomes a substitute for mother. The teacher takes care of the students and treats them as her own children. When they grow older, teacher assumes the role of an instructor, who guides his/her students to become a good person and instills moral thoughts in them. Teachers have a very special place in the society. They have the instinct to recognize talent and nurture it. They are the creators of responsible citizens, who contribute to the society in one way or the other. Students, especially the small children, often consider their favorite teacher as the perfect person on earth. Teachers are considered the mentors, who not only guide a person academically, but also instill moral and ethical values in him/her. Teacher's Day appreciates teaching and the people who have opted for the profession. It is a day, when students approach their teachers and extend their sincere gratitude to them.

TEACHER TEACHING AND CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

School Visit: It was a private unaided English medium school. Basically,it was a coeducational school. The students come from lower middle class of society. The school follows the state [Maharashtra] syllabus.

The Class: I observed 5th standard section d English class. There were sixty students. The duration of one class was 30 minutes. The class situation was little noisy due to numbers of students.

Sitting arrangement: As I mentioned there were 60 students in the class. The children were sitting in three lines [group] of 15 students. There was no distinction between girl and boy in terms of sitting arrangement. Both boy and girl sat together and study together.

[Teacher entered the class along with text book]

Teacher: good morning.sit down. Open your English book. Today we will study lesson 10 ‘George Washington Carver’.

Teacher [she]: writes lesson and lesson name on the board which is to be taught. She had written meaning of difficult words previous day. First, I am going to read lesson. Look in your books and listen carefully. Do not talk in between. She started reading the paragraphs and later she explained it. Having taught the paragraphs, she started asking the question of the lesson.

Teacher asked to the class to tell about whom we are talking about?

Students answered: Carver.

Teacher asked to the class when Carver was born?

Several children answered looking from books: Carver was born in 1861.

Teacher walked around and told them not look into book. If you tell looking into book, I will hit you with a stick.

Teacher: asked the class who was great scientist?

Almost students replied: George Washington Carver.

Teacher asked them to tell who ware slave?

Students: silenced prevailed and nobody opened their mouth. Later they were looking down and murmuring.

She then explained that in ancient time there were two types of people: Black and White .White people were considered as a master. They thought that they were sent by God to rule over Black. Black people were called slave. Black people were sent to do forming. They were not allowed to go to school and not to sit with White people.

Teacher asked: what do slave do?

Students: there was no answer from children.

Teacher again answered that slave used to do forming.

Teacher asked: which color was invented by Carver?

Several students replied: blue color.

My reflection and perception:

I think that banking / traditional theory of mind was being applied by teacher. The teacher was using rote learning pedagogy in which I found that the children were applying their accumulated knowledge in order to answer the question. The basic objectives of teacher’s pedagogy to enable them remember the information of text and develop their comprehensive skill. Apart from this teacher’s method of reading in the class also make children’s better pronunciation/articulation of word for future. For example,’’ Teacher: asked the class who was great scientist?

Almost students replied: George Washington Carver’’

The structure of the class was strongly framed under control of teacher. Teacher had overwhelming control in the class. All the students were being manupulated by her. The children were given little space for sharing their understanding and opinion. Because of strong framing under the teacher’s authority, children did not dare to think what right and wrong give even wrong answer is? For the example ‘‘Teacher asked them to tell who ware slave?

Students: silenced prevailed and nobody opened mouth and then they were looking down and murmuring.’’

The teacher pedagogy of teaching was authoritarian and less democratic. She demonstrated her authority during question and answer with students. She provided only bookish knowledge with tradition manner. Classroom was fully in her control and whatever she had planned and did accordingly. She did not encourage students at all. Children seemed to me suggest that children understand but could not find situation able to convey properly. Teacher did not give individual opportunity to speak rather allowed giving equal time and space to all the students to answer. The classroom seemed to me remind Freire ,Paulo who argues Tradition/Banking education and put process of enquiry in his ‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’ . For instance this sentence might seem to be arrogant ‘’ Teacher walked around and told them not look into book. If you tell looking into book, I will hit you with a stick’’

To the best of my knowledge teacher’s teaching was fully teacher centered [authoritarian].the teacher was reading the lesson very fast. The students were dominated by the teacher. As the result of it students could not answer actively due to language problem and hesitation. She was imposing the bookish knowledge over pupils. Teacher was imparting the knowledge whatever given in text and nothing beyond that. The students were supposed to know/remember whatever is written in book and reply when it required. All decisions and instructions were taken by teacher. The classroom interaction was based on rote learning. For example’’ Teacher asked to the class when Carver was born?

Several children answered looking from books: Carver was born in 1861.’’

TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

Literally speaking, professional refers to a person who works in a skilled occupation. A professional can be either a person in a profession [in the sense that certain types of skilled work requiring formal training or education] law, medical, teaching or sport.
Schon[1983] uses the term’ Knowledge in-action’ to describe the knowledge that is embedded in the skilled action of the professional.


A professional is emerging about special characteristic of high quality professional development.. It gives opportunities for teachers to engage in leadership roles. Teaching can be considered as professional, reflective, thinking activity because same features also find with other profession such as medical, law, and architecture and business management. A professional teacher possesses a body of special knowledge taken through formal training and experience. Teachers also have knowledge about their curriculum, teaching method, subject matters and child behavior. Similarly doctors possess formal knowledge about physiology and pathology and experience from patient behavior.



Second feature of professional activity is its goal-orientation in relation to its clients. Regarding teaching, teacher aim is to teach pupils. Teacher influences pupils by controlling curriculum guideline and prepare children for a future. It focuses on how students learn content in depth and active learning


Third feature of professional activity is that the problems professional deal with are often complex and ambiguous. Doyle[1986] describes pertaining to teaching , teacher faces complex situations of the classroom environment in terms of six general features: multidimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy, unpredictability, publicness and history. According to him classroom is a busy place where at a time teacher may be posed complex question to handle. As a result of it how teacher is visualized to cope with classroom situation and it can influence how every pupil assess teacher and respond in future.



The role of teacher professional development basically focuses on knowledge for practice and effort to improve school condition through new teaching pedagogy and methods. Educational policy makers have realized the role of professional development opportunities for teachers. The new opportunities will help for teachers to enhance their knowledge and development new practice. Apart from that teacher professional development envision to promote the creation of body of knowledge in elementary level .As a result of professional growth teacher achieve rich experience and examine teaching systematically.



Teacher professional development is an essential mechanism for developing teacher’s content knowledge and their teaching practice. It also helps to teacher’s capacity to teach to high standards. In context of India the role of teacher professional development to promote for having the ability to think independently and also have academic skills. As a professional teacher must have subject matter content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and curriculum knowledge. A teacher also must know how to teach and what to teach and why to teach.



It is to be noted that teacher professional development study adds to the knowledge base on effective professional development. The success of standards based reform depends on teachers’ ability to provide both basic knowledge and advance thinking and problem solving among their pupils. Intact, the role of teacher professional development is to bring implementation in school reform or simply help teachers to improve their teaching.


It can be seen that impact of teacher professional development upon students in terms of skill development, self confidence, or students behavior than the personal growth of teachers. In order to fulfill the professional development appetites of teachers it becomes necessary to leave them in their professional work. In this way, the model of teacher professional development relies on the expertise of teachers.



From novice to expertise a teacher develops over a professional career. There are five stages to consider from novice to expertise. First stage, Novice is taught context free rules such as give praise for right answers wait at least three second after asking a higher order question, never criticize a student. The novice should be able to recognize the context free and rules in order to begin to teach. Second stage, Advance beginner is taught strategic knowledge in the sense that when to ignore or break rules and when to follow them. Third stage Competent. They are very much conscious about what they are going to do. They first decide plan then they set priorities. They have rational approach towards their goal what to attend and what to ignore. Fourth stage Proficient. They have intuitive sense of the situation and also know how become prominent. The proficient performer has analytical view and skill what to do. Stage fifth Expert They have both an intuitive understanding and non analytic sense. They represent fluid performance.


Therefore,it is clear that teaching is professional activity for that professional teacher fulfills all the necessary requirement. A teacher can be called a professional, if he/she possesses knowledge of content(subject), knowledge about student, authorized training certificate,commitment to job.aims of education, knowledge of teaching pedagogy.


REFERENCES

1-James Calderhead, Teaching as a Professional Activity.
2-Lee Shulman, Those Who Understand Knowledge Growth in Teaching.
3-Krishna Kumar, Meek dictator: The Paradox of Teacher’s Personality
4-Michael Fullan and Andy Hargreaves, the Teacher As A Person
5-David Berliner, Teacher Expertise David Berliner, Teacher Expertise
6-Hilda Borko, professional Development and Teacher Learning, Educational Researcher, Vol.33, No,8 [Nov-2004],Pub. American Educational Research Association.

QUESTIONING UPON MORAL DEVELOPMENT AS AN UNIVERSAL THEORY

To begin with in brief what Kohlberg’s theory of moral development talks about then I will be looking at critically what critics have given their argument against his theory. Kohlberg has described six stages of moral development which are followings.
Obedience & Punishment: at stage 1 child thinks that if you do wrong thing, you will get punishment. For child rule seems to be made by elder or god.
Individualism & Exchange: at stage 2, children do not like to stick with any single authority. So they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to make deals and exchange favors with others. Both stages come under pre-conventional level 1
Good Personal Relationship: at stages 3, children emphasize that a good person must carry certain good behavior, care and sympathy for others. They emphasize being a good person, which means having helpful motives toward people close to them.
Maintaining the Social Order; at stage 4, children think as member of the conventional society. They should follow its values, norms, and expectations. And also their concern change toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole so that society can exist in order.
Social Contract and Individual Rights: at this stage 5, people think that society is made of principles and laws, so principles and laws are social contract. They emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone right to enjoy and abide the principles prevailed in the society. So there is a struggle for personal right and choice.
Universal Principles: at this stage 6, people think that to achieve social justice, there are made some universal principles which govern people. So these principles of justice which guide us towards decisions based on an equal respect for all.


Kohlberg’s theory cannot be considered as a universal theory because there are many loopholes. Kohlberg has said in his theory only emphasis justice to the exclusion of other values, and so it may not deal with the arguments of those who value, beliefs other moral aspects of actions. Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures. On the other hand, they progress through the stages in the same order; individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates. Kohlberg believes that different cultures do inculcate different belief but his stages reflect to underlying modes of reasoning, rather than to those beliefs

Here, I would support my argument what Simpson (1974) says that Kohlberg’s stages are culturally biased. Simpson says that Kohlberg has developed a stage model based on the Western Philosophical tradition and has then applied this model to non-Western cultures without considering that they have different moral outlooks. Kohlberg’s theory does not fit and suitable in Indian context because India is nation of diverse culture and religion. People morality and culture differs from religion to religion. So we can see that Muslim people imbibe different morality and culture on the basis of their religion which quite different from Hindu cultures. I would like to give example from Usha Menon’s paper which talks that Shweder’s classification of the Hindu moral code as duty-based moral code. She says that Hindus cultures evaluate the rightness and wrongness of their own thoughts, words and action are based in different conceptuality. Accordingly each person is supposed to live by code that is determined by many factors. They are followings; gender, occupation, family role, caste affiliation, phase of life.
She talks that the ultimate goal for all Hindu, according to texts on moral codes, souls be moksha or liberation, release from the ever-ending cycle of rebirths and redeaths. Besides it, other three goals of life in this world, they are, pleasure and the fulfillment of sensual desires(kama), profit and material prosperity (earth) and the performance of the religious and moral duties and rituals of everyday life( dharma).
She speaks that everyday practice is necessary for Hindus culture. She writes that self refinement makes upper caste Oriya Hindus to give attention to the correct performance of daily practice ( nityakarma). These are followings; defeating twice a day, bathing after each defecation, bathing every time after returning to home from any outside of works, offering prayers to their God in the morning and again before the evening meal and bathing before eating a meal, reciting everyday prayers . food is supposed to served by eldest wives of the family and in orthodox Brahman family people prefer to eat only at a time and in the kitchen either the room which is located in the center of the house so that they cannot encounter the inauspicious sounds of widows or untouchable people who works as scavenger.

Usha Menon also talks about moral emotions; lajya is one of the primary moral emotions which can be described by English word shame. It is cultivated by the Hindus upper caste as a sign of morality. Lajya also can be translated as modesty, being civilized, being respectful to elders, and seniors and not encroaching on others. According to her in indigenous understandings of lajya is considered to be a primary moral emotion because it teaches people how to behave morally, how to show consideration to others. It also shows how to regulate their conduct so that harmony can be maintained in the society. In this regards she gives example of the story that is told in the temple town of Bhubaneswar about the goddess Kali and her experience of lajya. Kali is regarded as the most violent and bloodthirsty manifestation of the Great Goddess of Hinduism. She is shown with her right foot placed squarely on the chest of a supine Siva, her husband and her tongue hanging out.

Another moral emotion she mentions that is Kshama ( forgiveness) given due consideration in Hinduism it is defined as ‘ a willingness to abandon one’s right to resentment, negative judgment and indifferent behavior towards one who unjustly injured us, while fostering the undeserved qualities of compassion, generosity and even love toward him or her.


Shweder, Mahapatra, and Miller (1987) assert in Usha Menon paper that conceptuality of morality is pervaded in Hinduism thinking. They say that American tradition is different from Hundus tradition and morality. They give an example of upper caste households of the young married women are told to be without lajya only with respect to the women of the conjugal family but she cannot behave same with the men. On the other hand she is advised to be modest with older men of the family, the husband’s father, his elder brother.

In Hundus religion, a Brahman widow in the temple town spends her days reading from the sacred books, refrains from wearing colored clothes and from eating non-vegetarian food because she is atoning fire sin of allowing her husband to die. According to Hindu ways of thinking, a married woman holds her husband’s life and his physical well-being within the palms of her hands. The source of her power over her husband’s life and his health can be achieved through her chastity of self- refinement. If person of the family is doing prayer in room called puja-ghar where child would not be scolded but child creating dirt during then child will be scolded. Later child learns that whether this behavior is appropriate or not depends entirely on the context. Therefore, it seems that the aspects of the life in the temple town that encourage Hindu moral understandings.

Another argument is given by Carol Gilligan (19977, 1982) who is critique of Kohlberg. Gilligan charges that Kohlberg's theory was earlier developed based on empirical research using only male participants. Gilligan argues that it does not properly describe the concerns of women. She observes that Kohlberg’s stages were taken exclusively from interviews with males. She has argued that Kohlberg’s theory is sex-biased. She also argues that the stages reflect a decidedly male orientation. For males, advanced moral thought revolves around rules, rights and abstract principles. For women, Gilligan says, morality centers not on rights and rules but on interpersonal relationships and the ethics of compassion and care. Women’s morality is more contextualized and it is tied to real, ongoing relationships rather than abstract solution to hypothetical dilemma. Gilligan's theory of moral development does not focus on the value of justice. She has developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring.

Gilligan’s morality of caring framework, the argument is made for the need to treat issues of caring rather than to limit the scope of morality to the prohibition-oriented issues of justice. She gives an example that girls are often seen as developing a connected sense of self and associated morality of caring. On the contrary, we find that males are seen attached to their mothers. They are assumed to identify with their fathers and developing an autonomous sense of self and associated morality of justice. According Gilligan there are two types of moral perspectives,’’ all people are born into a situation of inequality and no child survives in the absence of adult connection. Since everyone is vulnerable both to oppression and to abandonment, two stories about morality recur in human experience’’

Here I would give some example for support from Joan G. Miller paper who talks that moral development differences on people cultural psychology. To give an example, whether abortion is considered a moral violation or matter of the woman’s personal judgment depends in part on culturally and sub culturally variable conception.
Another argument can be raised against to Kohlberg’s Heinz moral dilemma (stealing the drug) on the contrary we can find that in Buddhist conception of karma during childhood, children are told that negative karma would lead to bad result. For example, ‘’if you create negative actions (bad karma) ,then you will become sick or die and when you die ,then you will go to the animal world or hell world’’.

Another similar example can be seen because cultural work reflects cross-cultural variation exists in injustice reasoning contrast. Miller describes in his paper comparing moral judgment of orthodox Hindu Indian practice of sati custom. According to orthodox U.S people think that treatment of such behavior as an issue of moral harm, whereas orthodox Hindu Indians consider it as virtuous behavior. They believe,’’ sati is morally right… The wife dies with her husband in order to preserve her chastity and show her devotion to her husband.’’

Miller paper gives argument that apart from everyday practices and modes of social interaction that impact on children’s development of moral outlook. Although it also it provide insights into the affective and cultural grounded processes by which moral outlooks change at a societal level that affects the outlooks of adults.

Conclusion
Therefore, I can conclude by saying that Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is not universal because there are many reasons. First, Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures so it means his theory is culturally biased. Since, Simpson argues that Kohlberg has developed a stage model based on the Western Philosophical tradition and has then applied this model to non-Western cultures without considering that they have different moral outlooks. Second, according to Gilligan, Kohlberg’s theory is sex biased in which he had taken earlier developed theory based on empirical research using only male participants. Third, Shedder, Mahapatra, and Miller (1987) assert in Usher Menon paper that conceptuality of morality and American tradition is different from Hindus tradition and morality.

. References
Joan G. Miller; Cultural Psychology of Moral development.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.
Kohlberg’s; Stages of Moral Development
Usher Menon;Morality and Context: A Study of Hindu Understandings

RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE TO THE CAUSE OF EDUCATION

Language is a means of communication and social mobility in the plural society. Language is an arbitrary and redundant because it is necessary for making communication success. On the other hand language is highly rule governed system. No language can tell its universality. Language learning is a natural phenomenon. Our thoughts ideas are constituted through language. All the language can be written into single Roman script. Language has no difference in its structure but it has differences in terms of social and cultural context. Language is a pattern system of arbitrary sound signals. It is characterized by structure dependence, creativity, displacement, duality and cultural transformations. All the language in the world which is remarkably similar in their main design features. It is fact that there is a relation between thought and language

Language of teaching is characterized by its rational usage which is one of the sociolinguistic variables in the actual speech activities. Child learns language because child has some sense of grammar (innate language) and on the basis of his/her observation of sentences and interaction from the people of society. Child develops his thought in own language then express it to parents, teachers and friends. Language plays a very vital role in education and day-today life. If people have no their own language whether primary or secondary, they cannot express their feeling easily. And also without language, no subject can be taught and learnt in educational domain. So children language can be used a resource for learning of knowledge in the classroom ( Agnihotri)

According to Vygotsky there are two role of language which mainly functions. Firstly, language as communicative or cultural tool which we use it for sharing and developing the knowledge. Secondly, language also enables organized human social life to exist and continue. He suggests that both physical manipulation and social interaction are necessary for development. He views that language is a mechanism for thinking, and a mental tool. It means language makes abstract thinking possible. It is the language that allows the child to imagine, manipulate, create new ideas and share these ideas with others. Language makes child free from the confines of the immediate and the concrete surrounding. As we know that learning frequently happens in shared situations. Language is crucial tool for appropriating other mental tools. So, to share an activity there must be happening talk about that activity. Unless we open our mouth (talk), we will never be able to know others meaning.

From the moment when child goes to school between five and seven years, on the average the child can achieve academic skills and achievement in education. This is very good age for a child to learn mastery over secondary language. I am reminded of what Brunner says language as an instrument of thought. Child can acquire literary skills in school and can understand a theoretical framework for conceptualization. If a child finds the range of contextual support available for expressing or receiving meaning,, the more cognitive involvement can be internalized.

If we see the relevance and pervasiveness of language through every nook and corner of the country, gave to the Indians living in different linguistic regions of the country to establish contact with each others. It is difficult to imagine how in the absence of language , the people of various provinces, speaking different languages and possessing diverse cultures could have come together under a single banner during the years of India’s long struggle for freedom with help of language. It is language which united the people of various sub-nationalities living in India and made them Indian nationals. In this way language is the single most powerful force which bring about nationalistic and patriotic feelings and sense of common nationality in India. The present unity among diverse regions and races of India is thus the gift of language to the country.


There is a great deal importance of language study and language teaching in schools, colleges and university. There are many important objectives of language teaching carries. Literally, it is to equip students with the ability to become literate, read and write with common understanding. Teacher must be aware about meta- linguistic and should try to promote and encourage giving them opportunity to express in their own language in the classroom. Teacher may also try to equip students with polite strategies and negotiate them with their communicative encounters with bearing and prestige. In this way, being a sincere teacher, he/she should always try to enhance open scope for bilingualism and appreciate their native language (resource) during the classroom transaction. Now, it becomes necessary for students to pay full attention in the class in order to listen what is being said and make their own sense in their language (L1). Here child’s primary language becomes relevant as resource in the classroom situation. I am reminded of what Mahatma Gandhi ji says ‘’ the mother tongue is as natural for the development of man’s mind as mother’s milk is for the development of the infant’s body.’’

Moving ahead, we can see second importance of teaching of language is to develop student’s abilities to manipulate and interpret the cognitive demand of text. In this way the power of words is the power of thought. Chomsky believes that language is already there in the human mind, hard-wind in the form of a Universal Grammar. And another cognovits Piaget views that language is constructed through an interaction with the environment like any other cognitive system. On the other hand Vygotsky opines that child’s speech is essentially a result of an interaction with society. Subsequently, child can use his innate language faculty hypothesis through teaching of language and child can learn and comprehend others subject with help of language.

Now, teacher in language classroom must develop some sort of habit of reading among students, while giving them some sort of assignment. Subsequently students’ habit of reading will lead learners to construct their own independent school of thought. They can understand the things by drawing some inferences from text and with help of their prior knowledge. Besides this, relevance of language study will reflect in students writing work which inhabits a rich control of grammar, vocabulary, subject content and punctuation also the ability to organize the thought coherently.


Conclusion
There is a great deal importance of language study and language teaching in schools, colleges and university. First, it is to equip students with the ability to become literate, read and write with common understanding. Second relevance of teaching of language is to develop student’s abilities to manipulate and interpret the cognitive demand of text. Third relevance of teaching of language will reflect in students writing work which inhabits a rich control of grammar, vocabulary, subject content and punctuation also the ability to organize the thought coherently. Therefore, in language teaching class, we must actively encourage the use of native language for inter-state communication as resource. This way, bilingualism instead of becoming a millstone round our necks, will open glorious avenues for an overall cultural evolution of India and Indians.

REFERENCES

Cummins, J. and swain, M. 1986. Bilingualism in Education. London: Longman. ( Chapter8,138-161)
Bruner,J.S. 1966. Towards a Theory of Instruction. Harvard University Press. ( Chapter 5,102-112)
Allen,J.P.B and Burren,P.V.1971.(ed.) Chomasky : selected Readings. London: Oxford University Press. ( Chapter 1,1-22)
Vygotsky,L.S.1962. Thought and Language. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ( Chapter 6&7,82-153)
R.K. Agnihotri. Towards a Pedagogical Paradigm Rooted in Multilinguality. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 1(2),1-10